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well it's a real pleasure for me to

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introduce introduce today's speaker dr

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carl pilster

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uh going sort of a reverse chronological

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order uh he was appointed director of

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nasa astrobiology institute in 19 in

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2006 prior to becoming nai director he

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was a senior scientist for astrobiology

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at nasa headquarters

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dr pilcher's scientific career was

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mostly conducted when he was a member of

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the faculty

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at the university of hawaii

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his significant achievements include the

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discoveries of water frost in saturn's

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rings and on the three of jupiter's

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galilean satellites and of weather on

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neptune

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dr pilscher received his bachelor of

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science degree in chemistry from the

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polytechnic institute of brooklyn and

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his phd in chemistry and planetary

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science from mit

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he also holds a master's in public

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affairs degree

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international relations from princeton

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university so he has quite a few degrees

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and he's done quite a few significant

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things in his life

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today he's going to do a very special

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thing he's going to talk about

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the scientific career of one of the

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greatest men

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one of the greatest scientists of the

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20th century

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a title of his presentation is explorer

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nobel laureate astrobiologist things you

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never knew about barry bloomberg would

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you please give a warm welcome to dr

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thank you very much stephanie and thank

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you all for coming i see a lot of uh

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card carrying friends of barry in the

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audience and it's great to see you all

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and and thanks for coming to hear

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what is truly a remarkable story uh

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even as a friend of barry

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there are

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many things that barry didn't talk about

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a whole lot to his friends

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uh he did not talk about his

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accomplishments he was a genuinely

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humble man if you asked him you could

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get him talking but if you just met

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barry

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and we're talking with him chances are

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you'd wind up talking about something

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that you were interested in because

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barry had an insatiable curiosity and

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barry would generally ask you what you

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were interested in and you'd quickly

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find some common area of interest and

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you'd find yourself talking about movies

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for example which barry was very

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interested in which

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many people are or camping or hiking or

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a variety of other things

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you wouldn't find out about barry's

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accomplishments

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and

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what i would like to do

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today is share with you the story of

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barry's accomplishments

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how he accomplished the things he did

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which were really quite extraordinary

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and relate those to

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what we know about barry's nasa career

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which began at the rather advanced age

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for barry of 72

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when he came to nasa

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and

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what you will see is that what barry did

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as the founding director of the nasa

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astrobiology institute

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was in fact directly traceable back to

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his experiences in medical research

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so

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let's get started

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now a lot of what i'm going to tell you

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barry wrote down in his autobiography

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the hunt for a killer virus hepatitis b

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and if you want to know more of the

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details of barry's story i encourage you

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to get the book and read it

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there are other biographies of barry

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available not so much in writing

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although he has a an expanded biography

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on the nobel

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website that is really very good and

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complements this one it was written four

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years later and there's a wonderful six

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or seven hours of video

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which is basically an extemporaneous

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biography that's available on the web

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and i can tell you about that if you're

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interested

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so

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barry's early years he was born in new

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york city oops

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he was born in new york city grandchild

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of eastern european immigrants he had a

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jewish parochial education prior to

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going to high school he was at the

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yeshiva of flatbush which is flatbush is

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an area in brooklyn

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and his studies included

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as as is the custom in jewish parochial

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education studies of the torah and the

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talmud which are commentaries on the

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torah that have been written over many

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centuries

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and what barry noted in retrospect was

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that

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the talmudic discourse this fact-based

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argumentation was very good training for

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his later scientific career it started

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him

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in this

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in the mode of looking at what the facts

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are and then

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debating with others about what those

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facts might actually mean and as you'll

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see of course

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that was a central part of his

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scientific career

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he graduated from far rockaway high

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school which is on a

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barrier island basically at the south

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end of long island

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the graduates from that high school

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included remarkably two other nobel

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laureates richard feynman who won the

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prize in physics in 65 and burton

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richter who won the prize the in physics

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the same year that barry won the prize

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and in fact barry said that the

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intellectual atmosphere in his high

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school

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was so great that he didn't encounter

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its equal until he arrived at oxford for

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his phd after uh going to med school so

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it's really it must have been quite a

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remarkable place at that time

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he entered the navy in 1946 at age 17

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the navy paid for him to complete a

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degree in physics at union college in

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new york and he was commissioned a line

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officer and served for uh three years i

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guess it was

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rising to the rank of captain of small

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amphibious ships and there is barry uh

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at

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age 0 roughly 22

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sitting there

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enjoying life

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and he said that he always appreciated

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the lessons he learned in the navy

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responsibility forward planning the

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importance of logistics and

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infrastructure sorry for the

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little font problem there

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barry looked back on his time in the

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navy as really a very important time of

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training for him because one of the

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things that he learned in the navy was

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that you need to start off with plan a

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but you'd better have plans b c and d

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ready in case plan a doesn't work out

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because you're going to need plans b c

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and d really really quickly in that case

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and as you'll see so much of barry's

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research was done

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uh in the field in many many field trips

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and in field trips the unexpected was

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happening all the time and as you'll see

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barry went to some pretty remote and

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primitive places in the world to do

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scientific research so barry always had

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plans b c and d ready just in case plan

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a didn't work out and i suspect plan a

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probably didn't work out an awful lot

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so let me talk a bit now about his early

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field work and medical anthropology

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so in 1947

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barry uh was in graduate work in physics

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he had gotten out of the navy

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and he entered columbia

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university medical school now it was

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interesting he left graduate work in

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physics because his senior professor and

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advisor told him that he really didn't

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have the specific intellectual skills

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necessary for success

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in physics and barry said that he

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actually came to agree with that

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assessment and apparently his father

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agreed with the assessment as well so at

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any rate the advice was barry go to

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medical school so barry went to medical

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school

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when he was a third year medical student

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he had the opportunity to go to suriname

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which is a country in sort of the the

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north central part of south america

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which was then known as dutch guiana and

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french guyana is just to its east

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barry was

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in some ways a man of his times and the

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times associated the tropics with

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romance they were mysterious and there

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were all these movies which we now

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recognize were not politically correct

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but at the time were very very popular

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and barry was really fascinated with the

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tropics

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he was also

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by this time very deeply committed to

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medicine and to providing health care

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and for him this was really a fabulous

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opportunity to pursue both of these

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interests simultaneously

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so he spent the summer in suriname

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his job there his role was to provide

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basic medical services

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kinds of things that you could imagine

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remote populations needing but also to

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study disease and he was based at a

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bauxite mine an aluminum ore mine in the

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city of moengo which is not far from the

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coast but you have to go up a fairly

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major river to get there

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this was a mine that had produced most

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of the bauxite ore that supported the

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canadian effort during world war ii and

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a lot of the us effort during world war

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ii so there was uh you could get large

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ships into the mine

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and you could export the ore out

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now suriname was very interesting

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from the standpoint of populations

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because there were of course natives of

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south america in suriname

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uh suriname

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like many countries of the new world had

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a slave trade for some years but it was

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also the site of one of the first

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successful slave rebellions in the

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mid-18th century so there were also a

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number of descendants

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of those slaves who formed a very large

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population of african origin there are

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also europeans particularly

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from

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holland and northern europe whoops

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indonesians

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indians

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chinese etc

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and what barry found in studying the

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prevalence of disease and malaria and

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filaria two parasitic diseases malaria

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of course a protist and filaria is uh

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the parasite is a worm particularly

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nasty disease

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uh what he found was that the

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susceptibility to infection

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varied greatly among those different

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populations now these were people who

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were living in the same place at the

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same time under the same conditions and

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yet some people got sick and some people

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didn't get sick

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and

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barry wondered why

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now

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sort of what barry was

285
00:10:57,910 --> 00:10:55,519
prepared to do at that time

286
00:11:01,110 --> 00:10:57,920
this is a trip that they made on the

287
00:11:03,590 --> 00:11:01,120
mariwine river while during that summer

288
00:11:06,150 --> 00:11:03,600
this was to get into the

289
00:11:09,509 --> 00:11:06,160
far more remote interior

290
00:11:12,710 --> 00:11:09,519
of suriname to do a study of the

291
00:11:15,670 --> 00:11:12,720
prevalence of filaria and malaria in

292
00:11:18,470 --> 00:11:15,680
really remote areas of suriname so barry

293
00:11:20,310 --> 00:11:18,480
was really prepared to do things at the

294
00:11:22,790 --> 00:11:20,320
time that were

295
00:11:24,790 --> 00:11:22,800
really beyond what most people were

296
00:11:27,350 --> 00:11:24,800
doing certainly most researchers

297
00:11:29,910 --> 00:11:27,360
scientific researchers

298
00:11:31,350 --> 00:11:29,920
so this was really a seminal period for

299
00:11:33,910 --> 00:11:31,360
barry

300
00:11:36,389 --> 00:11:33,920
it was during this period that the

301
00:11:38,550 --> 00:11:36,399
central question that motivated his

302
00:11:41,110 --> 00:11:38,560
entire scientific career was really

303
00:11:43,430 --> 00:11:41,120
formed and that question is how do

304
00:11:45,990 --> 00:11:43,440
inheritance human behavior and the

305
00:11:47,110 --> 00:11:46,000
environment interrelate in the context

306
00:11:48,470 --> 00:11:47,120
of disease

307
00:11:50,069 --> 00:11:48,480
and he wrote in his book it was in

308
00:11:52,069 --> 00:11:50,079
suriname that i learned to rely on

309
00:11:56,150 --> 00:11:52,079
observations in the field new

310
00:11:57,750 --> 00:11:56,160
observations led to new hypotheses

311
00:12:00,230 --> 00:11:57,760
that could not have been induced by

312
00:12:01,990 --> 00:12:00,240
laboratory-based experiments the field

313
00:12:03,910 --> 00:12:02,000
work was in turn very dependent on

314
00:12:05,509 --> 00:12:03,920
laboratory techniques and hypotheses

315
00:12:07,269 --> 00:12:05,519
were confirmed or rejected by

316
00:12:08,310 --> 00:12:07,279
experimental testing

317
00:12:12,230 --> 00:12:08,320
this too

318
00:12:15,590 --> 00:12:12,240
was a a way of approaching science that

319
00:12:18,629 --> 00:12:15,600
characterized barry's scientific career

320
00:12:20,550 --> 00:12:18,639
the use of field work

321
00:12:22,150 --> 00:12:20,560
theoretical work that is the development

322
00:12:23,990 --> 00:12:22,160
of hypotheses and then the testing of

323
00:12:26,629 --> 00:12:24,000
those hypotheses in the laboratory and

324
00:12:27,670 --> 00:12:26,639
the interrelationship between those

325
00:12:30,550 --> 00:12:27,680
three

326
00:12:32,069 --> 00:12:30,560
modes of investigation were also central

327
00:12:34,550 --> 00:12:32,079
to barry's work

328
00:12:37,190 --> 00:12:34,560
so after med school barry trained at

329
00:12:38,629 --> 00:12:37,200
bellevue hospital and anybody who

330
00:12:40,550 --> 00:12:38,639
is familiar with new york city and

331
00:12:42,790 --> 00:12:40,560
particularly new york city at that time

332
00:12:45,430 --> 00:12:42,800
knows that bellevue hospital was one

333
00:12:46,710 --> 00:12:45,440
amazing place to train in medicine

334
00:12:48,629 --> 00:12:46,720
at that time

335
00:12:51,190 --> 00:12:48,639
followed by going up to columbia

336
00:12:53,910 --> 00:12:51,200
presbyterian medical center uptown

337
00:12:55,269 --> 00:12:53,920
and again what he found particularly in

338
00:12:57,430 --> 00:12:55,279
the population that was treated at

339
00:13:00,230 --> 00:12:57,440
bellevue which was a city hospital and

340
00:13:03,829 --> 00:13:00,240
this computer is very touchy here

341
00:13:05,670 --> 00:13:03,839
he found again that some populations

342
00:13:07,590 --> 00:13:05,680
some demographic groups scandinavians

343
00:13:09,430 --> 00:13:07,600
for example were much more likely to

344
00:13:11,750 --> 00:13:09,440
contract tuberculosis which was very

345
00:13:15,269 --> 00:13:11,760
common in new york city at the time

346
00:13:17,430 --> 00:13:15,279
then were other populations again

347
00:13:18,629 --> 00:13:17,440
reinforcing the

348
00:13:22,470 --> 00:13:18,639
observations that he had made in

349
00:13:25,910 --> 00:13:22,480
suriname from 1955 to 57 he was at

350
00:13:28,949 --> 00:13:25,920
oxford doing a phd in biochemistry

351
00:13:30,550 --> 00:13:28,959
and during that time he developed a very

352
00:13:32,870 --> 00:13:30,560
specific interest in genetic

353
00:13:34,550 --> 00:13:32,880
polymorphisms basically variations

354
00:13:37,430 --> 00:13:34,560
genetic variations

355
00:13:41,190 --> 00:13:37,440
and their relationship to to disease

356
00:13:43,829 --> 00:13:41,200
susceptibility now the thing that is

357
00:13:45,990 --> 00:13:43,839
important about a genetic

358
00:13:47,590 --> 00:13:46,000
variation that is related to disease

359
00:13:51,269 --> 00:13:47,600
susceptibilities of course you can

360
00:13:54,230 --> 00:13:51,279
determine that before somebody gets sick

361
00:13:56,470 --> 00:13:54,240
so that means that if you know who is

362
00:13:57,910 --> 00:13:56,480
susceptible to a particular disease

363
00:14:00,150 --> 00:13:57,920
there is the potential at least for

364
00:14:01,990 --> 00:14:00,160
intervention for example if you know

365
00:14:04,389 --> 00:14:02,000
that you are genetically susceptible to

366
00:14:05,750 --> 00:14:04,399
heart disease you may spend more time

367
00:14:08,550 --> 00:14:05,760
really focusing on keeping your

368
00:14:10,790 --> 00:14:08,560
cholesterol down very simple not so

369
00:14:12,389 --> 00:14:10,800
simple sometimes intervention

370
00:14:15,030 --> 00:14:12,399
but that's the kind of thing that

371
00:14:17,189 --> 00:14:15,040
motivated barry so he wrote that it

372
00:14:19,030 --> 00:14:17,199
began to dawn on me that the study of

373
00:14:20,389 --> 00:14:19,040
human polymorphisms would provide a

374
00:14:21,990 --> 00:14:20,399
conceptual framework for the

375
00:14:23,110 --> 00:14:22,000
investigation of inherited human

376
00:14:25,189 --> 00:14:23,120
variation

377
00:14:26,550 --> 00:14:25,199
and its connections with disease and

378
00:14:28,949 --> 00:14:26,560
survival

379
00:14:32,790 --> 00:14:30,949
that concept

380
00:14:34,949 --> 00:14:32,800
of determining

381
00:14:36,710 --> 00:14:34,959
a susceptibility to disease before

382
00:14:38,790 --> 00:14:36,720
someone gets sick is basically

383
00:14:42,150 --> 00:14:38,800
preventive medicine well preventive

384
00:14:43,990 --> 00:14:42,160
medicine was not a hotly pursued topic

385
00:14:46,550 --> 00:14:44,000
in the medical community at the time and

386
00:14:48,150 --> 00:14:46,560
some would argue even today

387
00:14:49,670 --> 00:14:48,160
it certainly wasn't a high status

388
00:14:52,069 --> 00:14:49,680
professional goal

389
00:14:54,230 --> 00:14:52,079
i mean after all what happens when you

390
00:14:56,230 --> 00:14:54,240
are successful in preventive medicine

391
00:14:58,790 --> 00:14:56,240
nobody gets sick

392
00:15:01,110 --> 00:14:58,800
try imagining a tv medical drama based

393
00:15:03,030 --> 00:15:01,120
on preventive medicine i don't think it

394
00:15:05,910 --> 00:15:03,040
would do too well in the ratings against

395
00:15:07,990 --> 00:15:05,920
er or you know in the oscar competition

396
00:15:09,670 --> 00:15:08,000
against contagion you're not going to

397
00:15:12,629 --> 00:15:09,680
find too many people getting excited

398
00:15:14,629 --> 00:15:12,639
about the results of preventive medicine

399
00:15:16,230 --> 00:15:14,639
at the same time

400
00:15:18,389 --> 00:15:16,240
the particular thing that he was

401
00:15:20,790 --> 00:15:18,399
studying human polymorphisms at the time

402
00:15:22,389 --> 00:15:20,800
were also seen as sort of ho-hum by the

403
00:15:24,310 --> 00:15:22,399
medical community they were used in

404
00:15:27,430 --> 00:15:24,320
forensics of people committed a crime

405
00:15:29,590 --> 00:15:27,440
you know we see on csi now all the time

406
00:15:31,670 --> 00:15:29,600
if there was a paternity suit

407
00:15:33,750 --> 00:15:31,680
blood banking was concerned about human

408
00:15:35,910 --> 00:15:33,760
polymorphisms

409
00:15:37,389 --> 00:15:35,920
make sure that blood types were were the

410
00:15:39,430 --> 00:15:37,399
right type

411
00:15:41,350 --> 00:15:39,440
anthropologists were concerned about

412
00:15:43,509 --> 00:15:41,360
human polymorphisms because it enabled

413
00:15:47,590 --> 00:15:43,519
them to trace populations

414
00:15:49,430 --> 00:15:47,600
so barry was pursuing a not very

415
00:15:51,749 --> 00:15:49,440
medically

416
00:15:55,430 --> 00:15:51,759
exciting or at least a scene exciting by

417
00:15:57,350 --> 00:15:55,440
his contemporaries uh not very exciting

418
00:15:59,110 --> 00:15:57,360
medical field preventive medicine

419
00:16:01,350 --> 00:15:59,120
medicine using

420
00:16:03,509 --> 00:16:01,360
a sort of ho-hum

421
00:16:05,749 --> 00:16:03,519
again as seen by the medical community

422
00:16:08,389 --> 00:16:05,759
techniques studying human polymorphisms

423
00:16:11,590 --> 00:16:08,399
worse to study human polymorphisms you

424
00:16:14,389 --> 00:16:11,600
have to do population studies

425
00:16:17,430 --> 00:16:14,399
well population studies of course

426
00:16:19,430 --> 00:16:17,440
are much less precise as viewed by the

427
00:16:21,110 --> 00:16:19,440
traditional medical community than

428
00:16:23,030 --> 00:16:21,120
reductionist medicine which looks at the

429
00:16:26,069 --> 00:16:23,040
chemistry and the physics of what's

430
00:16:27,430 --> 00:16:26,079
going on inside the body but barry

431
00:16:29,749 --> 00:16:27,440
pressed on

432
00:16:32,949 --> 00:16:29,759
this was barry's nature

433
00:16:36,310 --> 00:16:32,959
he pressed on in face of this skepticism

434
00:16:38,230 --> 00:16:36,320
and did that work for several years at

435
00:16:40,389 --> 00:16:38,240
the national institutes of health before

436
00:16:42,550 --> 00:16:40,399
he moved to what was then called the

437
00:16:46,389 --> 00:16:42,560
institute for cancer research which is

438
00:16:48,470 --> 00:16:46,399
now known as the fox chase cancer center

439
00:16:50,949 --> 00:16:48,480
and he talked about that move

440
00:16:53,829 --> 00:16:50,959
from nih and he said his main problem at

441
00:16:56,389 --> 00:16:53,839
nih was fitting what i wanted to do into

442
00:16:58,550 --> 00:16:56,399
the disciplined determined rigidity

443
00:17:02,069 --> 00:16:58,560
of the constituent institutes

444
00:17:05,350 --> 00:17:02,079
then and now nih comprises about 20

445
00:17:07,990 --> 00:17:05,360
individual institutes each devoted to a

446
00:17:10,230 --> 00:17:08,000
particular disease or category of

447
00:17:12,230 --> 00:17:10,240
disease and of course having that

448
00:17:15,189 --> 00:17:12,240
structure makes it very difficult to

449
00:17:16,470 --> 00:17:15,199
work across the boundaries of those

450
00:17:18,710 --> 00:17:16,480
institutes

451
00:17:20,309 --> 00:17:18,720
barry's research as he says ranged over

452
00:17:22,549 --> 00:17:20,319
several disciplines population

453
00:17:24,710 --> 00:17:22,559
anthropology epidemiology environment

454
00:17:27,110 --> 00:17:24,720
host interactions there was of course a

455
00:17:28,549 --> 00:17:27,120
very major clinical component

456
00:17:30,789 --> 00:17:28,559
to his work

457
00:17:33,270 --> 00:17:30,799
and even though the institute for cancer

458
00:17:35,029 --> 00:17:33,280
research was dedicated to cancer we were

459
00:17:37,590 --> 00:17:35,039
never asked what relation our research

460
00:17:39,750 --> 00:17:37,600
had to immediate cancer applications so

461
00:17:41,909 --> 00:17:39,760
he found a freedom to work across

462
00:17:44,950 --> 00:17:41,919
disciplinary boundaries

463
00:17:48,150 --> 00:17:44,960
at icr now fox chase

464
00:17:50,230 --> 00:17:48,160
and when one thinks about astrobiology

465
00:17:52,470 --> 00:17:50,240
which as most of this audience knows is

466
00:17:54,549 --> 00:17:52,480
extremely interdisciplinary it's not

467
00:17:58,470 --> 00:17:54,559
surprising to find that later in life

468
00:18:00,390 --> 00:17:58,480
when barry had decided not to to uh

469
00:18:02,390 --> 00:18:00,400
not to continue as an active medical

470
00:18:04,150 --> 00:18:02,400
researcher that it was astrobiology as

471
00:18:06,310 --> 00:18:04,160
another science that really got his

472
00:18:07,270 --> 00:18:06,320
attention

473
00:18:10,230 --> 00:18:07,280
so

474
00:18:12,230 --> 00:18:10,240
how did barry come to the nobel prize

475
00:18:14,950 --> 00:18:12,240
one thing i can tell you for sure is he

476
00:18:18,230 --> 00:18:14,960
must have been as surprised as anybody

477
00:18:21,430 --> 00:18:18,240
uh that this is where his path took him

478
00:18:24,710 --> 00:18:21,440
so the question he was focused on what

479
00:18:29,830 --> 00:18:27,669
in 1955 there was a new technique

480
00:18:31,990 --> 00:18:29,840
developed gel electrophoresis now

481
00:18:33,909 --> 00:18:32,000
anybody who has taken elementary biology

482
00:18:36,310 --> 00:18:33,919
even in high school thinks of gel

483
00:18:37,830 --> 00:18:36,320
electrophoresis as you know oh my you

484
00:18:39,110 --> 00:18:37,840
know everybody does that you do it in

485
00:18:40,870 --> 00:18:39,120
high school you do it in freshman

486
00:18:42,950 --> 00:18:40,880
biology

487
00:18:45,029 --> 00:18:42,960
but however somebody had to develop it

488
00:18:47,270 --> 00:18:45,039
there was a technique before that was

489
00:18:49,750 --> 00:18:47,280
paper electrophoresis so this was a

490
00:18:51,510 --> 00:18:49,760
newly developed technique in 1955 and

491
00:18:52,950 --> 00:18:51,520
barry and his colleagues began an

492
00:18:55,350 --> 00:18:52,960
extensive study

493
00:18:56,390 --> 00:18:55,360
of genetic polymorphisms about the the

494
00:18:59,830 --> 00:18:56,400
distribution

495
00:19:02,070 --> 00:18:59,840
of different variants of genes in

496
00:19:03,909 --> 00:19:02,080
populations living under very different

497
00:19:05,830 --> 00:19:03,919
environmental conditions again getting

498
00:19:08,470 --> 00:19:05,840
at what's the interaction

499
00:19:10,470 --> 00:19:08,480
between behavior the environment and

500
00:19:13,669 --> 00:19:10,480
your genetic makeup with regard to

501
00:19:15,669 --> 00:19:13,679
susceptibility uh to disease

502
00:19:17,830 --> 00:19:15,679
this was a time that his field work

503
00:19:20,070 --> 00:19:17,840
really took off and he was traveling

504
00:19:21,669 --> 00:19:20,080
literally to the ends of the earth he

505
00:19:23,590 --> 00:19:21,679
started close to home he actually

506
00:19:26,150 --> 00:19:23,600
started around oxford

507
00:19:28,070 --> 00:19:26,160
getting a baseline population

508
00:19:31,110 --> 00:19:28,080
and went to the basque country because

509
00:19:34,630 --> 00:19:31,120
it turns out the basque people actually

510
00:19:37,510 --> 00:19:34,640
have a fairly distinct population

511
00:19:39,430 --> 00:19:37,520
then to nigeria and over the next

512
00:19:42,789 --> 00:19:39,440
several years to northern alaska to

513
00:19:45,909 --> 00:19:42,799
study the inuits greece pacific islands

514
00:19:49,029 --> 00:19:45,919
native americans south america etc what

515
00:19:50,710 --> 00:19:49,039
they generally did was they tagged along

516
00:19:52,950 --> 00:19:50,720
with other studies

517
00:19:55,990 --> 00:19:52,960
which were collecting blood samples and

518
00:19:57,830 --> 00:19:56,000
so they would be able to get a a

519
00:20:01,029 --> 00:19:57,840
portion of those samples that were

520
00:20:02,470 --> 00:20:01,039
collected without causing any additional

521
00:20:04,789 --> 00:20:02,480
interventions

522
00:20:07,270 --> 00:20:04,799
in those populations and they had their

523
00:20:09,110 --> 00:20:07,280
general conceptual framework that by

524
00:20:11,270 --> 00:20:09,120
understanding the distribution of

525
00:20:12,870 --> 00:20:11,280
genetic polymorphisms they would learn

526
00:20:14,549 --> 00:20:12,880
something and doing this in different

527
00:20:16,549 --> 00:20:14,559
environments they would learn something

528
00:20:19,029 --> 00:20:16,559
about disease but they didn't know what

529
00:20:21,029 --> 00:20:19,039
they were going to learn it was way too

530
00:20:23,669 --> 00:20:21,039
early to postulate

531
00:20:26,470 --> 00:20:23,679
that we're going to study this disease

532
00:20:27,909 --> 00:20:26,480
by studying these genetic polymorphisms

533
00:20:29,990 --> 00:20:27,919
so what they were really doing was

534
00:20:31,909 --> 00:20:30,000
exploring in this case the space that

535
00:20:33,590 --> 00:20:31,919
they were exploring was human genetic

536
00:20:35,430 --> 00:20:33,600
variation

537
00:20:36,549 --> 00:20:35,440
and they were exploring for what they

538
00:20:39,190 --> 00:20:36,559
were going to find about the

539
00:20:42,870 --> 00:20:39,200
associations between environment those

540
00:20:45,669 --> 00:20:42,880
human genetic variations and disease

541
00:20:49,430 --> 00:20:45,679
so i would argue that barry was a true

542
00:20:51,110 --> 00:20:49,440
explorer from the outset

543
00:20:52,549 --> 00:20:51,120
this is a picture of barry taken in

544
00:20:55,750 --> 00:20:52,559
suriname

545
00:21:00,630 --> 00:20:58,950
here he is in the in northern alaska

546
00:21:02,549 --> 00:21:00,640
this is during the

547
00:21:04,789 --> 00:21:02,559
inuit study

548
00:21:07,029 --> 00:21:04,799
one of the inuit studies and he is

549
00:21:09,350 --> 00:21:07,039
dressed in this case for a meeting with

550
00:21:11,430 --> 00:21:09,360
village leaders

551
00:21:13,430 --> 00:21:11,440
and here he is in the marvelous picture

552
00:21:18,310 --> 00:21:13,440
that we used on the poster which was

553
00:21:25,590 --> 00:21:21,350
so they had quite a bit of success with

554
00:21:27,990 --> 00:21:25,600
this and they discovered um

555
00:21:29,909 --> 00:21:28,000
well they found

556
00:21:32,870 --> 00:21:29,919
got more information about a number of

557
00:21:34,950 --> 00:21:32,880
previously known

558
00:21:36,549 --> 00:21:34,960
genetic polymorphisms

559
00:21:38,630 --> 00:21:36,559
but what they wanted was they really

560
00:21:40,870 --> 00:21:38,640
wanted to make a splash they wanted to

561
00:21:42,149 --> 00:21:40,880
find a new polymorphic system now to

562
00:21:43,350 --> 00:21:42,159
give you an idea of what they were

563
00:21:45,510 --> 00:21:43,360
looking for

564
00:21:47,990 --> 00:21:45,520
one of the most common known polymorphic

565
00:21:50,710 --> 00:21:48,000
systems is the blood type system whether

566
00:21:52,149 --> 00:21:50,720
you're type a type b type o r h negative

567
00:21:54,710 --> 00:21:52,159
rh positive and it turns out that

568
00:21:55,750 --> 00:21:54,720
there's a whole bunch of other

569
00:21:58,149 --> 00:21:55,760
variants

570
00:22:00,310 --> 00:21:58,159
of blood types and this forms a

571
00:22:02,789 --> 00:22:00,320
polymorphic system you can trace those

572
00:22:04,630 --> 00:22:02,799
variants back to genetic variations and

573
00:22:05,990 --> 00:22:04,640
so what they were looking for

574
00:22:07,430 --> 00:22:06,000
was they were looking for a similar

575
00:22:09,510 --> 00:22:07,440
system but one

576
00:22:10,950 --> 00:22:09,520
that was associated with disease

577
00:22:13,350 --> 00:22:10,960
susceptibility

578
00:22:14,710 --> 00:22:13,360
and they developed a new technique to do

579
00:22:16,390 --> 00:22:14,720
this

580
00:22:17,990 --> 00:22:16,400
and i'd love to i

581
00:22:19,430 --> 00:22:18,000
really wish that barry was still here so

582
00:22:21,110 --> 00:22:19,440
i could ask him how did they think of

583
00:22:22,310 --> 00:22:21,120
this this was this was really a very

584
00:22:24,390 --> 00:22:22,320
clever thing

585
00:22:26,630 --> 00:22:24,400
they decided to study the blood of

586
00:22:29,430 --> 00:22:26,640
patients who had received numerous blood

587
00:22:32,149 --> 00:22:29,440
transfusions now the idea here

588
00:22:35,110 --> 00:22:32,159
is that when a patient receives a blood

589
00:22:37,270 --> 00:22:35,120
transfusion that patient may receive a

590
00:22:38,789 --> 00:22:37,280
blood protein that of course the patient

591
00:22:40,710 --> 00:22:38,799
has because we all have basically the

592
00:22:42,950 --> 00:22:40,720
same proteins but might receive a

593
00:22:45,029 --> 00:22:42,960
slightly different variant of that

594
00:22:46,950 --> 00:22:45,039
protein as the result of a genetic

595
00:22:49,750 --> 00:22:46,960
polymorphism that is

596
00:22:51,590 --> 00:22:49,760
the person who donated the blood has a

597
00:22:54,390 --> 00:22:51,600
different version a different allele of

598
00:22:56,070 --> 00:22:54,400
the gene responsible for that protein

599
00:22:58,710 --> 00:22:56,080
well if that protein was different

600
00:22:59,830 --> 00:22:58,720
enough it might be an antigen that is it

601
00:23:02,549 --> 00:22:59,840
might be

602
00:23:05,830 --> 00:23:02,559
a protein that stimulates an immune

603
00:23:06,950 --> 00:23:05,840
response in the recipient

604
00:23:08,870 --> 00:23:06,960
so

605
00:23:10,950 --> 00:23:08,880
the immune response would involve the

606
00:23:12,710 --> 00:23:10,960
generation of an antibody now so we're

607
00:23:14,710 --> 00:23:12,720
going to be talking a lot about antigens

608
00:23:16,149 --> 00:23:14,720
and antibodies and the the

609
00:23:19,029 --> 00:23:16,159
simplest way to keep them straight is to

610
00:23:20,310 --> 00:23:19,039
remember that antigen derives from an

611
00:23:21,590 --> 00:23:20,320
antibody

612
00:23:22,470 --> 00:23:21,600
generator

613
00:23:25,430 --> 00:23:22,480
so

614
00:23:29,190 --> 00:23:25,440
the foreign protein

615
00:23:31,270 --> 00:23:29,200
introduced into the transfused patient

616
00:23:33,909 --> 00:23:31,280
serves as the antigen

617
00:23:36,950 --> 00:23:33,919
and if it is antigenic then the immune

618
00:23:39,270 --> 00:23:36,960
response may produce an antibody

619
00:23:41,590 --> 00:23:39,280
so what they did was they did a double

620
00:23:43,990 --> 00:23:41,600
diffusion using gel electrophoresis

621
00:23:46,950 --> 00:23:44,000
using aggro gels and what they did was

622
00:23:48,549 --> 00:23:46,960
they would put the serum which is the

623
00:23:50,710 --> 00:23:48,559
liquid component of the blood with all

624
00:23:53,270 --> 00:23:50,720
the white cells and red cells

625
00:23:55,830 --> 00:23:53,280
and clotting factors uh separated up

626
00:23:58,470 --> 00:23:55,840
they put the serum from the transfused

627
00:24:00,870 --> 00:23:58,480
patient in a central well and they would

628
00:24:02,870 --> 00:24:00,880
put the sarah from the test subjects in

629
00:24:04,149 --> 00:24:02,880
adjacent wells

630
00:24:05,669 --> 00:24:04,159
what they would do is that they would

631
00:24:08,470 --> 00:24:05,679
then run the gel

632
00:24:09,669 --> 00:24:08,480
and if the test subject contained a

633
00:24:11,750 --> 00:24:09,679
protein

634
00:24:15,830 --> 00:24:11,760
that is an antigen for which the

635
00:24:20,310 --> 00:24:18,070
sorry about that for which for which the

636
00:24:23,029 --> 00:24:20,320
transfused patient serum contained the

637
00:24:24,710 --> 00:24:23,039
antibody the antigen and the antibody

638
00:24:27,590 --> 00:24:24,720
would bind that's what that's how

639
00:24:29,669 --> 00:24:27,600
antibodies deal with antigens and they

640
00:24:31,350 --> 00:24:29,679
would precipitate and you could actually

641
00:24:32,950 --> 00:24:31,360
see that precipitate it would form an

642
00:24:35,830 --> 00:24:32,960
ark and you could either stain it or

643
00:24:37,269 --> 00:24:35,840
sometimes you could just see it directly

644
00:24:41,190 --> 00:24:37,279
and

645
00:24:44,070 --> 00:24:41,200
studied well it turned out that they did

646
00:24:46,549 --> 00:24:44,080
discover a new polymorphic system they

647
00:24:48,789 --> 00:24:46,559
called it the ag system and it turned

648
00:24:51,830 --> 00:24:48,799
out to be a system in low-density

649
00:24:54,149 --> 00:24:51,840
lipoproteins that were correlated with

650
00:24:56,310 --> 00:24:54,159
susceptibility to heart attack stroke

651
00:24:57,909 --> 00:24:56,320
and diabetes

652
00:25:01,590 --> 00:24:57,919
so that was one of the things they

653
00:25:04,149 --> 00:25:01,600
pursued but they

654
00:25:06,710 --> 00:25:04,159
just after they discovered that system

655
00:25:08,149 --> 00:25:06,720
they discovered something that really

656
00:25:10,310 --> 00:25:08,159
piqued their interest and i'm just going

657
00:25:12,789 --> 00:25:10,320
to jump right to that because that

658
00:25:14,070 --> 00:25:12,799
follows the line of our story

659
00:25:16,390 --> 00:25:14,080
they discovered something that they

660
00:25:18,149 --> 00:25:16,400
called the australia antigen now they

661
00:25:19,830 --> 00:25:18,159
called it the australia antigen one

662
00:25:22,310 --> 00:25:19,840
because that was a nice neutral name and

663
00:25:24,950 --> 00:25:22,320
two because it was first observed in the

664
00:25:26,549 --> 00:25:24,960
blood of an australian aboriginal

665
00:25:28,070 --> 00:25:26,559
they discovered other antigens at the

666
00:25:30,870 --> 00:25:28,080
time that they called the pennsylvania

667
00:25:32,789 --> 00:25:30,880
antigen and a variety of other similarly

668
00:25:35,110 --> 00:25:32,799
neutral names and they didn't pursue

669
00:25:36,789 --> 00:25:35,120
those and barry wondered in his book

670
00:25:38,549 --> 00:25:36,799
what might have happened if they had

671
00:25:40,549 --> 00:25:38,559
pursued those why did they pursue the

672
00:25:42,710 --> 00:25:40,559
australia antigen and they didn't pursue

673
00:25:45,350 --> 00:25:42,720
the others you know would would the

674
00:25:47,990 --> 00:25:45,360
world have turned out differently and

675
00:25:50,549 --> 00:25:48,000
perhaps but we will never know

676
00:25:52,310 --> 00:25:50,559
so the australian antigen as i said it

677
00:25:54,230 --> 00:25:52,320
was discovered first in the serum of an

678
00:25:55,909 --> 00:25:54,240
australian aborigine

679
00:25:58,789 --> 00:25:55,919
but it was then found to be common in

680
00:26:01,269 --> 00:25:58,799
populations in asia the pacific africa

681
00:26:03,269 --> 00:26:01,279
eastern and southern europe but not in

682
00:26:04,630 --> 00:26:03,279
the u.s and not in western europe that

683
00:26:06,950 --> 00:26:04,640
is it wasn't common it wasn't

684
00:26:09,029 --> 00:26:06,960
non-existent in those other populations

685
00:26:10,390 --> 00:26:09,039
but it wasn't common

686
00:26:11,510 --> 00:26:10,400
now again remember

687
00:26:14,870 --> 00:26:11,520
they're looking for genetic

688
00:26:17,510 --> 00:26:14,880
polymorphisms they're not looking for

689
00:26:19,830 --> 00:26:17,520
infectious disease at this point

690
00:26:21,590 --> 00:26:19,840
and so the first thing they do is they

691
00:26:24,549 --> 00:26:21,600
analyze their data with an inheritance

692
00:26:26,310 --> 00:26:24,559
model after all they had just found a

693
00:26:28,390 --> 00:26:26,320
polymorphic system

694
00:26:30,149 --> 00:26:28,400
and the data seemed to be consistent

695
00:26:33,909 --> 00:26:30,159
with an inherence model but there were

696
00:26:36,390 --> 00:26:33,919
some surprising exceptions

697
00:26:38,149 --> 00:26:36,400
the kinds of exceptions would be cases

698
00:26:40,549 --> 00:26:38,159
they started off doing family studies

699
00:26:43,269 --> 00:26:40,559
and so in family studies what you expect

700
00:26:45,669 --> 00:26:43,279
in an inheritance model is if both

701
00:26:47,830 --> 00:26:45,679
parents have the putative gene for the

702
00:26:49,590 --> 00:26:47,840
australia antigen then you expect all

703
00:26:51,190 --> 00:26:49,600
the children to have it and in general

704
00:26:53,430 --> 00:26:51,200
that was the case

705
00:26:55,669 --> 00:26:53,440
if one parent has it then you expect it

706
00:26:58,310 --> 00:26:55,679
to follow a dominant gene recessive gene

707
00:26:59,750 --> 00:26:58,320
model and you would uh the the children

708
00:27:02,630 --> 00:26:59,760
would have it depending upon how they

709
00:27:04,230 --> 00:27:02,640
inherited the genes from the parents and

710
00:27:08,230 --> 00:27:04,240
they could interpret the data in terms

711
00:27:11,110 --> 00:27:08,240
of this model but it didn't always work

712
00:27:13,669 --> 00:27:11,120
so one of the things that they noticed

713
00:27:16,070 --> 00:27:13,679
is that most of the sarah that contained

714
00:27:18,070 --> 00:27:16,080
australia antigen were also from

715
00:27:19,750 --> 00:27:18,080
patients who had been transfused and so

716
00:27:22,310 --> 00:27:19,760
now they found themselves with this

717
00:27:24,149 --> 00:27:22,320
curious observation that they were

718
00:27:26,710 --> 00:27:24,159
looking at patients that had been

719
00:27:28,789 --> 00:27:26,720
transfused in comparison to patients who

720
00:27:30,950 --> 00:27:28,799
had been transfused

721
00:27:33,029 --> 00:27:30,960
now the suggestion here

722
00:27:35,909 --> 00:27:33,039
was that well

723
00:27:38,549 --> 00:27:35,919
if if au is associated with transfusion

724
00:27:39,590 --> 00:27:38,559
maybe it's a blood-borne infectious

725
00:27:41,350 --> 00:27:39,600
disease

726
00:27:44,149 --> 00:27:41,360
rather than a

727
00:27:45,830 --> 00:27:44,159
inherently a a genetic

728
00:27:48,230 --> 00:27:45,840
disease

729
00:27:50,789 --> 00:27:48,240
and they started getting other data that

730
00:27:52,789 --> 00:27:50,799
led them down that same track they were

731
00:27:54,470 --> 00:27:52,799
also doing normal population studies

732
00:27:56,149 --> 00:27:54,480
that is studies again they were

733
00:27:58,149 --> 00:27:56,159
piggybacking on other people's work in

734
00:28:00,389 --> 00:27:58,159
many cases just studying background

735
00:28:02,389 --> 00:28:00,399
populations they were doing one in the

736
00:28:04,549 --> 00:28:02,399
in the south pacific they were doing one

737
00:28:08,149 --> 00:28:04,559
in georgia here in the u.s

738
00:28:10,630 --> 00:28:08,159
and they found rare instances uh in some

739
00:28:13,909 --> 00:28:10,640
of these normal populations

740
00:28:16,870 --> 00:28:13,919
of uh au positive individuals who had

741
00:28:19,269 --> 00:28:16,880
the australia antigen and in one case it

742
00:28:21,190 --> 00:28:19,279
turned out that that person

743
00:28:23,190 --> 00:28:21,200
which was one person in a study of

744
00:28:25,510 --> 00:28:23,200
several hundred had just been diagnosed

745
00:28:27,750 --> 00:28:25,520
with a case of hepatitis in another case

746
00:28:29,990 --> 00:28:27,760
somebody who had not been

747
00:28:31,669 --> 00:28:30,000
au positive became a u positive and

748
00:28:34,389 --> 00:28:31,679
turned out that they had just received a

749
00:28:36,470 --> 00:28:34,399
transfusion so again

750
00:28:37,750 --> 00:28:36,480
they were getting clues

751
00:28:42,310 --> 00:28:37,760
as to

752
00:28:43,990 --> 00:28:42,320
what a.u the australia antigen might be

753
00:28:46,070 --> 00:28:44,000
they also found that there was a

754
00:28:47,430 --> 00:28:46,080
correlation with patients at high risk

755
00:28:49,510 --> 00:28:47,440
for leukemia

756
00:28:51,190 --> 00:28:49,520
for example people who survived the

757
00:28:53,190 --> 00:28:51,200
atomic bombs

758
00:28:56,389 --> 00:28:53,200
in hiroshima and nagasaki people who

759
00:28:58,549 --> 00:28:56,399
were exposed to radiation during

760
00:29:00,950 --> 00:28:58,559
atomic testing in the pacific

761
00:29:03,510 --> 00:29:00,960
and down syndrome patients

762
00:29:06,549 --> 00:29:03,520
now the study of down syndrome patients

763
00:29:08,870 --> 00:29:06,559
proved to be very very informative

764
00:29:13,590 --> 00:29:08,880
a bit of history

765
00:29:17,190 --> 00:29:13,600
prior to 1950 1960 the medical advice to

766
00:29:20,070 --> 00:29:17,200
patients uh parents who had a down's

767
00:29:22,549 --> 00:29:20,080
child was to institutionalize the child

768
00:29:24,070 --> 00:29:22,559
now obviously practice today is very

769
00:29:26,470 --> 00:29:24,080
different but this was the practice in

770
00:29:30,230 --> 00:29:26,480
the first part of this century and so

771
00:29:32,549 --> 00:29:30,240
there were by 1950 huge institutions

772
00:29:35,190 --> 00:29:32,559
with thousands in some cases

773
00:29:36,710 --> 00:29:35,200
of down syndrome patients uh all

774
00:29:38,789 --> 00:29:36,720
institutionalized

775
00:29:42,389 --> 00:29:38,799
but that pattern was starting to break

776
00:29:44,630 --> 00:29:42,399
down in the 1950s and by the mid-1960s

777
00:29:46,310 --> 00:29:44,640
a lot of these institutions had been at

778
00:29:50,070 --> 00:29:46,320
least partially dismantled and there

779
00:29:52,389 --> 00:29:50,080
were a lot of down syndrome patients in

780
00:29:55,110 --> 00:29:52,399
group homes in smaller group

781
00:29:57,669 --> 00:29:55,120
environments so what they had was they

782
00:29:58,710 --> 00:29:57,679
had a population which had something in

783
00:30:01,110 --> 00:29:58,720
common

784
00:30:03,990 --> 00:30:01,120
genetic uh

785
00:30:05,590 --> 00:30:04,000
based disease down syndrome but they had

786
00:30:08,230 --> 00:30:05,600
them in

787
00:30:09,990 --> 00:30:08,240
environments where there were a thousand

788
00:30:12,149 --> 00:30:10,000
or more people interacting on a daily

789
00:30:13,590 --> 00:30:12,159
basis in environments where smaller and

790
00:30:15,669 --> 00:30:13,600
smaller groups

791
00:30:17,510 --> 00:30:15,679
were interacting and what they found was

792
00:30:19,029 --> 00:30:17,520
the frequency of the australian antigen

793
00:30:20,230 --> 00:30:19,039
which was fairly common among down

794
00:30:22,230 --> 00:30:20,240
syndrome

795
00:30:23,750 --> 00:30:22,240
patients was inversely related to the

796
00:30:25,909 --> 00:30:23,760
institution size in other words they

797
00:30:28,789 --> 00:30:25,919
were more likely to find

798
00:30:31,269 --> 00:30:28,799
au positive individuals in the large

799
00:30:33,909 --> 00:30:31,279
institutions than they were in the small

800
00:30:36,710 --> 00:30:33,919
group homes and again this is consistent

801
00:30:39,029 --> 00:30:36,720
with an infectious model that is that

802
00:30:41,909 --> 00:30:39,039
the more people you have to pass

803
00:30:43,590 --> 00:30:41,919
the infectious agent around between

804
00:30:47,750 --> 00:30:43,600
the more likely you are to find

805
00:30:50,230 --> 00:30:47,760
individuals with that infectious agent

806
00:30:52,310 --> 00:30:50,240
and they continue to find other

807
00:30:55,830 --> 00:30:52,320
individuals just surprising results

808
00:30:57,029 --> 00:30:55,840
which i don't have the time to go uh

809
00:30:59,350 --> 00:30:57,039
into

810
00:31:02,870 --> 00:30:59,360
um

811
00:31:09,190 --> 00:31:06,630
the the surprises continued to associate

812
00:31:12,630 --> 00:31:09,200
australia antigen with hepatitis so this

813
00:31:15,110 --> 00:31:12,640
led to them deciding you know let's not

814
00:31:16,389 --> 00:31:15,120
do more family studies and more studies

815
00:31:18,389 --> 00:31:16,399
of of

816
00:31:19,669 --> 00:31:18,399
populations related genetically let's

817
00:31:21,830 --> 00:31:19,679
start looking at people who have

818
00:31:23,830 --> 00:31:21,840
clinical cases of hepatitis and

819
00:31:25,750 --> 00:31:23,840
understand what relationship the

820
00:31:27,990 --> 00:31:25,760
australian antigen has

821
00:31:31,350 --> 00:31:28,000
uh to those populations

822
00:31:32,389 --> 00:31:31,360
and by mid 1967 they had documented

823
00:31:35,510 --> 00:31:32,399
the association

824
00:31:36,310 --> 00:31:35,520
of the australian antigen with hepatitis

825
00:31:38,230 --> 00:31:36,320
so

826
00:31:40,870 --> 00:31:38,240
what do they do they write a paper

827
00:31:43,029 --> 00:31:40,880
reporting this result

828
00:31:44,870 --> 00:31:43,039
and the paper gets rejected

829
00:31:46,630 --> 00:31:44,880
by the journal annals of internal

830
00:31:49,750 --> 00:31:46,640
medicine

831
00:31:50,549 --> 00:31:49,760
why did the paper get rejected

832
00:31:52,149 --> 00:31:50,559
well

833
00:31:54,149 --> 00:31:52,159
there were several reasons

834
00:31:56,710 --> 00:31:54,159
first of all no one on the team was a

835
00:31:58,470 --> 00:31:56,720
virologist hepatitis was a disease that

836
00:32:00,389 --> 00:31:58,480
had been known for many many years

837
00:32:01,669 --> 00:32:00,399
yellow jaundice the symptoms of

838
00:32:03,750 --> 00:32:01,679
hepatitis

839
00:32:05,990 --> 00:32:03,760
are very very obvious there was a

840
00:32:08,070 --> 00:32:06,000
well-developed community that had been

841
00:32:10,230 --> 00:32:08,080
studying hepatitis for decades they had

842
00:32:12,950 --> 00:32:10,240
been searching for the infectious agent

843
00:32:17,509 --> 00:32:12,960
of hepatitis for decades and they hadn't

844
00:32:18,470 --> 00:32:17,519
found it now here came along people who

845
00:32:20,710 --> 00:32:18,480
were

846
00:32:23,669 --> 00:32:20,720
basically clinical physicians and some

847
00:32:26,070 --> 00:32:23,679
biochemists and and a few laboratory

848
00:32:27,830 --> 00:32:26,080
spectroscopists they had no formal

849
00:32:30,230 --> 00:32:27,840
training in epidemiology none of them

850
00:32:32,149 --> 00:32:30,240
was a virologist and none of them were a

851
00:32:34,870 --> 00:32:32,159
member of the hepatitis research

852
00:32:38,870 --> 00:32:35,669
so

853
00:32:42,149 --> 00:32:38,880
that was part of the problem this was uh

854
00:32:43,430 --> 00:32:42,159
about the time that barry read thomas

855
00:32:45,750 --> 00:32:43,440
kuhn's the structure of scientific

856
00:32:47,350 --> 00:32:45,760
revolutions and he began to get some

857
00:32:48,630 --> 00:32:47,360
perspective

858
00:32:50,070 --> 00:32:48,640
those of you familiar with the book and

859
00:32:51,190 --> 00:32:50,080
i suspect that's many people in this

860
00:32:54,149 --> 00:32:51,200
room

861
00:32:54,950 --> 00:32:54,159
know that what what cune argued is that

862
00:33:05,269 --> 00:32:54,960
a

863
00:33:09,269 --> 00:33:05,279
community

864
00:33:11,990 --> 00:33:09,279
and when data first start to appear

865
00:33:14,870 --> 00:33:12,000
that tend to undercut that model

866
00:33:16,389 --> 00:33:14,880
contradict that model the first reaction

867
00:33:17,669 --> 00:33:16,399
of that scientific community is to

868
00:33:18,950 --> 00:33:17,679
resist

869
00:33:23,669 --> 00:33:18,960
this

870
00:33:25,110 --> 00:33:23,679
their model their paradigm

871
00:33:26,549 --> 00:33:25,120
because a little data here is

872
00:33:27,750 --> 00:33:26,559
inconsistent there's always ways to

873
00:33:30,630 --> 00:33:27,760
explain why a little data are

874
00:33:34,870 --> 00:33:30,640
inconsistent and what has to happen is

875
00:33:37,430 --> 00:33:34,880
the evidence that the model is

876
00:33:39,509 --> 00:33:37,440
not a correct model has to build up to a

877
00:33:42,950 --> 00:33:39,519
point and there's resistance up to that

878
00:33:44,870 --> 00:33:42,960
point and when the

879
00:33:46,789 --> 00:33:44,880
contradictory data

880
00:33:49,430 --> 00:33:46,799
reach a critical point

881
00:33:51,669 --> 00:33:49,440
then a change occurs very rapidly and

882
00:33:53,909 --> 00:33:51,679
that change kuhn referred to as a

883
00:33:56,149 --> 00:33:53,919
scientific revolution

884
00:33:57,430 --> 00:33:56,159
and what barry began to conclude was

885
00:33:59,750 --> 00:33:57,440
that they were on the cutting edge of a

886
00:34:02,070 --> 00:33:59,760
scientific revolution and of course he

887
00:34:04,230 --> 00:34:02,080
was exactly right

888
00:34:06,389 --> 00:34:04,240
the reviewer

889
00:34:08,710 --> 00:34:06,399
the principal reviewer of the paper

890
00:34:10,069 --> 00:34:08,720
later told barry that the reason he had

891
00:34:11,669 --> 00:34:10,079
rejected it

892
00:34:13,750 --> 00:34:11,679
was that there had been so many

893
00:34:15,669 --> 00:34:13,760
erroneous claims of discovery of the

894
00:34:17,270 --> 00:34:15,679
serum hepatitis which is what hepatitis

895
00:34:19,030 --> 00:34:17,280
b was called at the time

896
00:34:21,270 --> 00:34:19,040
the serum hepatitis virus that the

897
00:34:23,030 --> 00:34:21,280
reviewer just didn't want to see another

898
00:34:26,230 --> 00:34:23,040
erroneous claim in the literature which

899
00:34:28,790 --> 00:34:26,240
was only you know bound to be retracted

900
00:34:30,389 --> 00:34:28,800
someplace downstream

901
00:34:31,510 --> 00:34:30,399
barry's reaction to this was very

902
00:34:33,349 --> 00:34:31,520
interesting

903
00:34:35,270 --> 00:34:33,359
if such rejections are taken too

904
00:34:37,589 --> 00:34:35,280
seriously he wrote they can lead to an

905
00:34:39,909 --> 00:34:37,599
attitude of martyrdom and of opposition

906
00:34:41,589 --> 00:34:39,919
to a recalcitrant establishment we of

907
00:34:43,109 --> 00:34:41,599
course know of no colleagues who ever

908
00:34:45,909 --> 00:34:43,119
responded that way

909
00:34:48,389 --> 00:34:45,919
to the rejection of the paper

910
00:34:52,710 --> 00:34:48,399
our unhappy sentiments didn't last

911
00:34:53,990 --> 00:34:52,720
and the rebuff didn't slow us down again

912
00:34:55,270 --> 00:34:54,000
this is barry

913
00:34:57,349 --> 00:34:55,280
press on

914
00:34:58,950 --> 00:34:57,359
don't don't worry about that

915
00:35:06,230 --> 00:34:58,960
just keep doing what you're doing as

916
00:35:09,670 --> 00:35:07,990
now they had written an earlier paper

917
00:35:11,510 --> 00:35:09,680
before the main paper submitted to the

918
00:35:13,270 --> 00:35:11,520
same journal the earlier paper didn't

919
00:35:14,829 --> 00:35:13,280
make a strong acclaim

920
00:35:17,349 --> 00:35:14,839
and the earlier paper actually got

921
00:35:19,589 --> 00:35:17,359
published but it still remained to be

922
00:35:21,510 --> 00:35:19,599
demonstrated that the australia antigen

923
00:35:23,190 --> 00:35:21,520
could be equated with hepatitis virus so

924
00:35:24,950 --> 00:35:23,200
at this point they knew that there was

925
00:35:27,430 --> 00:35:24,960
an association but they didn't actually

926
00:35:28,710 --> 00:35:27,440
know what the australian antigen was

927
00:35:30,630 --> 00:35:28,720
now at this point they did something

928
00:35:32,390 --> 00:35:30,640
very important let me skip down to to

929
00:35:34,150 --> 00:35:32,400
the quote from barry's book

930
00:35:35,750 --> 00:35:34,160
one of the most important steps we took

931
00:35:39,030 --> 00:35:35,760
was to distribute vials of the

932
00:35:41,270 --> 00:35:39,040
anti-serum that is the the antibodies

933
00:35:43,430 --> 00:35:41,280
and the antigen to investigators who

934
00:35:45,589 --> 00:35:43,440
requested them with these it was very

935
00:35:47,109 --> 00:35:45,599
easy for scientists even in laboratories

936
00:35:53,349 --> 00:35:47,119
with

937
00:35:55,349 --> 00:35:53,359
there was confirmation from other

938
00:35:57,510 --> 00:35:55,359
investigators often from parts of the

939
00:36:00,710 --> 00:35:57,520
world where hepatitis b was more common

940
00:36:06,390 --> 00:36:04,069
so in essence what barry did was to

941
00:36:07,990 --> 00:36:06,400
practice science in the most open and

942
00:36:09,589 --> 00:36:08,000
generous way

943
00:36:12,150 --> 00:36:09,599
give his reagents

944
00:36:15,829 --> 00:36:12,160
that he and his team had spent a lot of

945
00:36:18,150 --> 00:36:15,839
time a lot of years of their lives

946
00:36:20,310 --> 00:36:18,160
developing just give these reagents out

947
00:36:22,470 --> 00:36:20,320
freely to the scientific community to

948
00:36:23,510 --> 00:36:22,480
anybody who asked

949
00:36:25,750 --> 00:36:23,520
so

950
00:36:27,990 --> 00:36:25,760
what resulted was research started going

951
00:36:29,990 --> 00:36:28,000
on all over the world in many many

952
00:36:32,550 --> 00:36:30,000
different laboratories

953
00:36:35,190 --> 00:36:32,560
and it was that research with barry's

954
00:36:37,670 --> 00:36:35,200
team contributing but at this time by

955
00:36:40,870 --> 00:36:37,680
this point barry's team really wasn't

956
00:36:43,109 --> 00:36:40,880
really that much in the lead on the this

957
00:36:45,589 --> 00:36:43,119
final stage in the research

958
00:36:47,670 --> 00:36:45,599
they were in the lead on direct imaging

959
00:36:49,270 --> 00:36:47,680
by electron microscopy because they had

960
00:36:51,270 --> 00:36:49,280
one of the world's leaders in electron

961
00:36:53,190 --> 00:36:51,280
microscopy which again was a relatively

962
00:36:55,589 --> 00:36:53,200
new field

963
00:36:58,470 --> 00:36:55,599
at fox chase cancer center and they

964
00:37:01,109 --> 00:36:58,480
finally demonstrated that the australian

965
00:37:03,430 --> 00:37:01,119
antigen is not the hepatitis virus but

966
00:37:06,390 --> 00:37:03,440
it is a component of the virus

967
00:37:10,230 --> 00:37:06,400
so here is the hepatitis virus it is a

968
00:37:13,190 --> 00:37:10,240
very simple virus in its structure it is

969
00:37:15,030 --> 00:37:13,200
far from a simple virus in its action it

970
00:37:16,069 --> 00:37:15,040
has four main components the surface

971
00:37:18,870 --> 00:37:16,079
antigen

972
00:37:21,750 --> 00:37:18,880
uh and this is hepatitis b s is for

973
00:37:23,829 --> 00:37:21,760
surface antigen is the protein coat on

974
00:37:25,589 --> 00:37:23,839
the outside of the virus that turned out

975
00:37:28,470 --> 00:37:25,599
to be the australia antigen and from

976
00:37:31,430 --> 00:37:28,480
here on out we'll talk about hbsag

977
00:37:34,310 --> 00:37:31,440
rather than the australia antigen

978
00:37:37,510 --> 00:37:34,320
that covers a core protein

979
00:37:40,630 --> 00:37:37,520
which is called hbc for core ag for

980
00:37:44,150 --> 00:37:40,640
antigen and within the capsid formed by

981
00:37:48,829 --> 00:37:44,160
the core protein there is

982
00:37:52,430 --> 00:37:48,839
dna polymerase an enzyme that uh will

983
00:37:55,190 --> 00:37:52,440
uh form the dna polymer a reverse

984
00:37:57,510 --> 00:37:55,200
transcriptase which is an enzyme that

985
00:37:59,750 --> 00:37:57,520
will make dna from rna because it turns

986
00:38:02,710 --> 00:37:59,760
out that although

987
00:38:04,870 --> 00:38:02,720
the hepatitis b virus contains dna there

988
00:38:08,230 --> 00:38:04,880
is a stage in its life cycle in which it

989
00:38:11,030 --> 00:38:08,240
reverse transcribes rna to dna so it's

990
00:38:13,430 --> 00:38:11,040
actually a retrovirus like hiv even

991
00:38:16,069 --> 00:38:13,440
though it contains dna

992
00:38:18,550 --> 00:38:16,079
and the actual dna of the virus itself

993
00:38:21,990 --> 00:38:18,560
which contains four genes

994
00:38:23,030 --> 00:38:22,000
just four genes very simple

995
00:38:25,270 --> 00:38:23,040
however

996
00:38:27,190 --> 00:38:25,280
the way it

997
00:38:29,670 --> 00:38:27,200
behaves and the disease that it causes

998
00:38:32,310 --> 00:38:29,680
is far from simple this is a micrograph

999
00:38:34,390 --> 00:38:32,320
of hbv particles and most of the

1000
00:38:36,069 --> 00:38:34,400
particles you see are not the virus all

1001
00:38:37,030 --> 00:38:36,079
of these particles

1002
00:38:37,750 --> 00:38:37,040
the

1003
00:38:42,630 --> 00:38:37,760
cir

1004
00:38:44,870 --> 00:38:42,640
21 nanometers across

1005
00:38:47,510 --> 00:38:44,880
and the elongated particles that are the

1006
00:38:50,069 --> 00:38:47,520
same diameter but of varying length

1007
00:38:51,910 --> 00:38:50,079
those are all the surface antigen

1008
00:38:52,710 --> 00:38:51,920
those are all

1009
00:38:58,710 --> 00:38:52,720
the

1010
00:39:02,470 --> 00:38:58,720
actually only three whole viruses in

1011
00:39:05,109 --> 00:39:02,480
this image one is here one is there

1012
00:39:07,670 --> 00:39:05,119
and one is there and you can see that

1013
00:39:10,069 --> 00:39:07,680
they contain a uh

1014
00:39:13,030 --> 00:39:10,079
central portion that central portion

1015
00:39:14,710 --> 00:39:13,040
is filled in this case with dna

1016
00:39:16,390 --> 00:39:14,720
now one of the things you see

1017
00:39:18,550 --> 00:39:16,400
immediately in this micrograph is there

1018
00:39:21,589 --> 00:39:18,560
is much much much more of the surface

1019
00:39:24,069 --> 00:39:21,599
antigen than there are of the live or

1020
00:39:27,510 --> 00:39:24,079
the whole virus and that is a

1021
00:39:30,470 --> 00:39:27,520
characteristic of hepatitis infection uh

1022
00:39:33,030 --> 00:39:30,480
the abundance of surface antigen

1023
00:39:35,190 --> 00:39:33,040
relative to the abundance of live virus

1024
00:39:38,310 --> 00:39:35,200
is typically a thousand to one

1025
00:39:40,390 --> 00:39:38,320
and that turns out to be key for one of

1026
00:39:42,550 --> 00:39:40,400
the things that barry did next was which

1027
00:39:44,230 --> 00:39:42,560
was the development of a vaccine barry

1028
00:39:47,030 --> 00:39:44,240
and his team so we'll get to that part

1029
00:39:48,710 --> 00:39:47,040
of the story in just a second

1030
00:39:50,230 --> 00:39:48,720
but the first part of the story the

1031
00:39:51,910 --> 00:39:50,240
first part of the the next part of the

1032
00:39:55,670 --> 00:39:51,920
story is

1033
00:39:57,750 --> 00:39:55,680
the issue of the transmission of

1034
00:40:00,470 --> 00:39:57,760
hepatitis through blood transfusions as

1035
00:40:02,870 --> 00:40:00,480
you can see from the the studies in

1036
00:40:04,790 --> 00:40:02,880
which they found themselves studying

1037
00:40:05,910 --> 00:40:04,800
transfused patients against transfused

1038
00:40:09,270 --> 00:40:05,920
patients

1039
00:40:11,030 --> 00:40:09,280
hepatitis is readily communicated by

1040
00:40:13,349 --> 00:40:11,040
blood transfusions

1041
00:40:16,310 --> 00:40:13,359
before

1042
00:40:19,910 --> 00:40:16,320
this work there was no way of detecting

1043
00:40:22,950 --> 00:40:19,920
hepatitis in the blood system so there

1044
00:40:25,589 --> 00:40:22,960
was no way to test donated blood

1045
00:40:27,349 --> 00:40:25,599
for hepatitis virus

1046
00:40:30,150 --> 00:40:27,359
at the same time there were more than

1047
00:40:32,470 --> 00:40:30,160
150 000 cases a year of post-transfusion

1048
00:40:35,829 --> 00:40:32,480
hepatitis that is hepatitis caused

1049
00:40:37,589 --> 00:40:35,839
specifically by blood transfusion so the

1050
00:40:39,109 --> 00:40:37,599
first application of their discovery was

1051
00:40:40,630 --> 00:40:39,119
screening donated blood all they had to

1052
00:40:42,790 --> 00:40:40,640
do was screen now for the surface

1053
00:40:44,790 --> 00:40:42,800
antigen which was present in such high

1054
00:40:46,470 --> 00:40:44,800
abundance that it was actually very

1055
00:40:48,630 --> 00:40:46,480
readily detectable even though they

1056
00:40:49,750 --> 00:40:48,640
weren't using very sensitive techniques

1057
00:40:51,510 --> 00:40:49,760
there were much more sensitive

1058
00:40:53,510 --> 00:40:51,520
techniques that they could apply they

1059
00:40:55,430 --> 00:40:53,520
were just more expensive more difficult

1060
00:40:59,109 --> 00:40:55,440
to do in the field and so they kept

1061
00:41:01,270 --> 00:40:59,119
doing the the double diffusion gels for

1062
00:41:05,670 --> 00:41:01,280
a long time because it worked extremely

1063
00:41:09,589 --> 00:41:08,470
but it took three to four years before

1064
00:41:13,750 --> 00:41:09,599
testing

1065
00:41:20,470 --> 00:41:17,910
the surface antigen became adopted why

1066
00:41:23,589 --> 00:41:20,480
again residual skepticism you know these

1067
00:41:26,230 --> 00:41:23,599
guys say that they can stop the uh

1068
00:41:27,430 --> 00:41:26,240
post-transfusion hepatitis but you know

1069
00:41:29,349 --> 00:41:27,440
people have been trying to do that for a

1070
00:41:31,349 --> 00:41:29,359
long time why should we believe them

1071
00:41:33,750 --> 00:41:31,359
there was also an economic motive after

1072
00:41:35,109 --> 00:41:33,760
world war ii with the development of

1073
00:41:38,150 --> 00:41:35,119
better anesthetics and better

1074
00:41:39,829 --> 00:41:38,160
antibiotics there was a huge growth in

1075
00:41:42,870 --> 00:41:39,839
the number of surgeries open heart

1076
00:41:44,630 --> 00:41:42,880
surgery kidney transplants etc

1077
00:41:46,470 --> 00:41:44,640
cancer surgery

1078
00:41:48,950 --> 00:41:46,480
and there was a great demand for blood

1079
00:41:50,550 --> 00:41:48,960
and so there was both a non-profit blood

1080
00:41:52,790 --> 00:41:50,560
bank industry and there was also a

1081
00:41:54,870 --> 00:41:52,800
for-profit blood bank industry and of

1082
00:41:56,710 --> 00:41:54,880
course they all have their economic

1083
00:41:58,230 --> 00:41:56,720
models and if somebody says you're going

1084
00:41:59,510 --> 00:41:58,240
to have to start throwing away an awful

1085
00:42:01,670 --> 00:41:59,520
lot of your blood plus you're going to

1086
00:42:04,150 --> 00:42:01,680
have to do all these tests suddenly that

1087
00:42:05,829 --> 00:42:04,160
affects the economics and so

1088
00:42:06,710 --> 00:42:05,839
it really took

1089
00:42:08,470 --> 00:42:06,720
uh

1090
00:42:10,309 --> 00:42:08,480
the university of pennsylvania hospital

1091
00:42:11,670 --> 00:42:10,319
which which was the first to institute

1092
00:42:13,109 --> 00:42:11,680
this because barry of course was

1093
00:42:14,710 --> 00:42:13,119
associated with the university of

1094
00:42:16,710 --> 00:42:14,720
pennsylvania

1095
00:42:18,230 --> 00:42:16,720
it really took them instituting it

1096
00:42:21,190 --> 00:42:18,240
demonstrating

1097
00:42:23,750 --> 00:42:21,200
that they greatly reduced the uh

1098
00:42:26,550 --> 00:42:23,760
incidence of post-transfusion hepatitis

1099
00:42:28,470 --> 00:42:26,560
before others other hospitals had to

1100
00:42:30,710 --> 00:42:28,480
adopt it because if they didn't adopt it

1101
00:42:32,630 --> 00:42:30,720
they would get into the the situation if

1102
00:42:35,109 --> 00:42:32,640
they could be sued for malpractice if

1103
00:42:37,270 --> 00:42:35,119
there was a well-demonstrated mechanism

1104
00:42:38,950 --> 00:42:37,280
of preventing it so that took about

1105
00:42:41,030 --> 00:42:38,960
three to four years and that finally

1106
00:42:43,109 --> 00:42:41,040
happened and it greatly reduced the

1107
00:42:45,190 --> 00:42:43,119
transmission of hpv and blood

1108
00:42:47,750 --> 00:42:45,200
transfusions and then that

1109
00:42:49,349 --> 00:42:47,760
process continued when hcv was

1110
00:42:50,550 --> 00:42:49,359
discovered

1111
00:42:52,630 --> 00:42:50,560
in the

1112
00:42:54,309 --> 00:42:52,640
1980s

1113
00:42:56,550 --> 00:42:54,319
so but the next step was to develop a

1114
00:42:57,670 --> 00:42:56,560
vaccine to prevent the infection by

1115
00:43:01,030 --> 00:42:57,680
other roots

1116
00:43:03,190 --> 00:43:01,040
hbv is extremely infectious

1117
00:43:04,470 --> 00:43:03,200
it is readily transmitted it's more

1118
00:43:07,349 --> 00:43:04,480
infectious

1119
00:43:09,190 --> 00:43:07,359
than hiv it's transmitted mother to

1120
00:43:10,550 --> 00:43:09,200
child at birth

1121
00:43:12,470 --> 00:43:10,560
it's transmitted sexually through

1122
00:43:14,550 --> 00:43:12,480
contaminated needles

1123
00:43:15,910 --> 00:43:14,560
sharing common personal items there are

1124
00:43:17,829 --> 00:43:15,920
even cases

1125
00:43:19,190 --> 00:43:17,839
of it being transmitted by sharing a

1126
00:43:21,270 --> 00:43:19,200
toothbrush

1127
00:43:22,870 --> 00:43:21,280
blood to blood transmission is the

1128
00:43:24,829 --> 00:43:22,880
transmission mode

1129
00:43:26,790 --> 00:43:24,839
somebody has bleeding gums they use a

1130
00:43:29,030 --> 00:43:26,800
toothbrush somebody else uses that

1131
00:43:30,950 --> 00:43:29,040
toothbrush they also have bleeding gums

1132
00:43:33,670 --> 00:43:30,960
you can have blood to blood transmission

1133
00:43:35,589 --> 00:43:33,680
there was a case in a hospital

1134
00:43:37,349 --> 00:43:35,599
early on in the days of

1135
00:43:40,150 --> 00:43:37,359
development of computers in which they

1136
00:43:42,230 --> 00:43:40,160
installed an ibm punch card system and

1137
00:43:45,430 --> 00:43:42,240
it was transmitted through paper cuts

1138
00:43:47,510 --> 00:43:45,440
from the ibm punch cards so it's it is a

1139
00:43:49,670 --> 00:43:47,520
very very infectious

1140
00:43:51,030 --> 00:43:49,680
uh agent

1141
00:43:53,109 --> 00:43:51,040
it infects about one quarter of the

1142
00:43:55,829 --> 00:43:53,119
world's population even today about two

1143
00:43:58,150 --> 00:43:55,839
billion people it's endemic in china and

1144
00:43:59,750 --> 00:43:58,160
it also causes most primary cancers of

1145
00:44:02,950 --> 00:43:59,760
the liver which kills about a million

1146
00:44:03,990 --> 00:44:02,960
and a half people uh annually

1147
00:44:06,470 --> 00:44:04,000
and

1148
00:44:08,950 --> 00:44:06,480
in doing their research what

1149
00:44:12,309 --> 00:44:08,960
barry and his team found was that the

1150
00:44:14,950 --> 00:44:12,319
surface antigen was the protective agent

1151
00:44:16,790 --> 00:44:14,960
that is that if you inoculated somebody

1152
00:44:18,790 --> 00:44:16,800
with a very small amount of the surface

1153
00:44:21,109 --> 00:44:18,800
antigen that person would develop

1154
00:44:23,109 --> 00:44:21,119
antibodies to the surface antigen if

1155
00:44:26,150 --> 00:44:23,119
that person was later exposed to the

1156
00:44:29,270 --> 00:44:26,160
live virus those antibodies would attack

1157
00:44:31,829 --> 00:44:29,280
the virus and provide protection

1158
00:44:34,710 --> 00:44:31,839
and here's where that thousand to one

1159
00:44:36,870 --> 00:44:34,720
ratio of surface antigen to live virus

1160
00:44:39,910 --> 00:44:36,880
comes in because they could collect 300

1161
00:44:42,550 --> 00:44:39,920
milliliters for example of serum from an

1162
00:44:45,510 --> 00:44:42,560
infected patient and that could be used

1163
00:44:47,670 --> 00:44:45,520
to after processing to inoculate many

1164
00:44:49,990 --> 00:44:47,680
many individuals you didn't need a lot

1165
00:44:52,069 --> 00:44:50,000
of the surface antigen to generate the

1166
00:44:54,230 --> 00:44:52,079
antibody response

1167
00:44:56,710 --> 00:44:54,240
so they developed a vaccine based on

1168
00:44:59,270 --> 00:44:56,720
that actually using the blood products

1169
00:45:01,190 --> 00:44:59,280
from infected individuals separating out

1170
00:45:03,910 --> 00:45:01,200
the live virus from the surface antigen

1171
00:45:06,390 --> 00:45:03,920
purifying the surface antigen adding

1172
00:45:09,349 --> 00:45:06,400
some boosting agents and then

1173
00:45:11,670 --> 00:45:09,359
using that as the vaccine it is the

1174
00:45:14,550 --> 00:45:11,680
first and only vaccine that has ever

1175
00:45:16,790 --> 00:45:14,560
been developed by that method

1176
00:45:18,470 --> 00:45:16,800
and fundamentally it's the same vaccine

1177
00:45:19,910 --> 00:45:18,480
that's being used today although it's no

1178
00:45:22,230 --> 00:45:19,920
longer made from blood products it's

1179
00:45:24,470 --> 00:45:22,240
made by recombinant techniques cloning

1180
00:45:27,030 --> 00:45:24,480
the gene for the surface antigen into e

1181
00:45:28,390 --> 00:45:27,040
coli basically

1182
00:45:31,349 --> 00:45:28,400
so

1183
00:45:34,390 --> 00:45:31,359
the blood derived product

1184
00:45:35,910 --> 00:45:34,400
was effective and safe

1185
00:45:38,390 --> 00:45:35,920
but there was still some reluctance to

1186
00:45:39,670 --> 00:45:38,400
use it because in principle if you're

1187
00:45:41,990 --> 00:45:39,680
using a blood product there could be

1188
00:45:43,910 --> 00:45:42,000
live virus the recombinant technique

1189
00:45:47,990 --> 00:45:43,920
that was developed in the early 1980s

1190
00:45:49,750 --> 00:45:48,000
fixed that and the vi the vaccine is now

1191
00:45:50,790 --> 00:45:49,760
one of the most widely used vaccines in

1192
00:45:52,550 --> 00:45:50,800
the world

1193
00:45:54,710 --> 00:45:52,560
over a billion doses have been

1194
00:45:56,109 --> 00:45:54,720
administered since the modern vaccine

1195
00:45:58,790 --> 00:45:56,119
became available

1196
00:46:00,230 --> 00:45:58,800
177 countries as of a couple years ago

1197
00:46:02,470 --> 00:46:00,240
maybe higher now have national

1198
00:46:04,550 --> 00:46:02,480
vaccination programs it's the first

1199
00:46:06,309 --> 00:46:04,560
vaccine that prevents a cancer there's

1200
00:46:08,150 --> 00:46:06,319
really a major human cancer there's

1201
00:46:10,230 --> 00:46:08,160
really only a second now

1202
00:46:11,829 --> 00:46:10,240
the vaccine against

1203
00:46:13,430 --> 00:46:11,839
cervical cancer

1204
00:46:14,710 --> 00:46:13,440
which

1205
00:46:16,470 --> 00:46:14,720
prevents infection by the human

1206
00:46:18,870 --> 00:46:16,480
papilloma virus

1207
00:46:20,230 --> 00:46:18,880
it's second only to smoking prevention

1208
00:46:21,510 --> 00:46:20,240
only to

1209
00:46:23,349 --> 00:46:21,520
smoking prevention as a cancer

1210
00:46:26,069 --> 00:46:23,359
prevention program

1211
00:46:27,670 --> 00:46:26,079
it saved millions of lives and had many

1212
00:46:29,030 --> 00:46:27,680
other highly beneficial effects there's

1213
00:46:30,790 --> 00:46:29,040
a story i'd love to tell you but i

1214
00:46:33,030 --> 00:46:30,800
notice i'm running out of time so i'm

1215
00:46:35,430 --> 00:46:33,040
going to move on

1216
00:46:37,349 --> 00:46:35,440
this is barry at oxford university

1217
00:46:38,710 --> 00:46:37,359
in 1973

1218
00:46:41,030 --> 00:46:38,720
the

1219
00:46:43,190 --> 00:46:41,040
chart behind him actually traces out all

1220
00:46:45,270 --> 00:46:43,200
the details of this story i've obviously

1221
00:46:47,109 --> 00:46:45,280
just summarized some of the highlights

1222
00:46:49,990 --> 00:46:47,119
in the story but the story was a very

1223
00:46:52,790 --> 00:46:50,000
very intricate story involving field

1224
00:46:55,349 --> 00:46:52,800
work and populations all over the world

1225
00:46:57,750 --> 00:46:55,359
and that chart is kind of the outline of

1226
00:46:59,950 --> 00:46:57,760
barry's book

1227
00:47:02,790 --> 00:46:59,960
here he is receiving the nobel prize

1228
00:47:04,390 --> 00:47:02,800
1976 with the king of sweden

1229
00:47:06,230 --> 00:47:04,400
it was a remarkable collection of

1230
00:47:08,870 --> 00:47:06,240
individuals

1231
00:47:11,750 --> 00:47:08,880
that year burton richter who

1232
00:47:13,829 --> 00:47:11,760
got the prize in physics barry's

1233
00:47:14,870 --> 00:47:13,839
high school mate although at a different

1234
00:47:17,510 --> 00:47:14,880
time

1235
00:47:18,790 --> 00:47:17,520
saw bello got the prize in literature

1236
00:47:20,550 --> 00:47:18,800
sam ting

1237
00:47:22,069 --> 00:47:20,560
of

1238
00:47:24,390 --> 00:47:22,079
the the instrument that was just brought

1239
00:47:25,829 --> 00:47:24,400
up to the international space station

1240
00:47:28,309 --> 00:47:25,839
milton friedman got the prize in

1241
00:47:29,510 --> 00:47:28,319
economics william lipscombe a very

1242
00:47:32,150 --> 00:47:29,520
famous chemist got the prize in

1243
00:47:35,030 --> 00:47:32,160
chemistry and carlton gadgesec who

1244
00:47:37,829 --> 00:47:35,040
was the co-winner of the prize in

1245
00:47:42,470 --> 00:47:37,839
physiology or medicine along with barry

1246
00:47:42,480 --> 00:47:47,190
kuru disease in the virginian islands

1247
00:47:51,430 --> 00:47:48,710
there were a lot of happy people at the

1248
00:47:53,910 --> 00:47:51,440
fox chase cancer center

1249
00:47:56,710 --> 00:47:53,920
and that is genes that is barry's wife

1250
00:47:56,720 --> 00:48:00,470
china

1251
00:48:05,670 --> 00:48:03,430
hepatitis is

1252
00:48:07,510 --> 00:48:05,680
an extremely serious problem in china it

1253
00:48:10,069 --> 00:48:07,520
was at the time and it remains a very

1254
00:48:12,230 --> 00:48:10,079
serious problem in china today

1255
00:48:13,990 --> 00:48:12,240
in the mid 1970s

1256
00:48:15,589 --> 00:48:14,000
china's population was about a billion

1257
00:48:17,510 --> 00:48:15,599
and they had the highest incidence in

1258
00:48:19,750 --> 00:48:17,520
the world of hpv infection and the

1259
00:48:22,309 --> 00:48:19,760
highest incidence of primary cancer of

1260
00:48:24,150 --> 00:48:22,319
the liver uh the the

1261
00:48:26,870 --> 00:48:24,160
proportions of populations in different

1262
00:48:28,230 --> 00:48:26,880
parts of china that were infected with

1263
00:48:30,790 --> 00:48:28,240
hepatitis b

1264
00:48:31,910 --> 00:48:30,800
at the time was in the mid teens

1265
00:48:34,230 --> 00:48:31,920
typically

1266
00:48:36,390 --> 00:48:34,240
that is the mid teens 15 16 percent of

1267
00:48:39,990 --> 00:48:36,400
the entire population in some areas of

1268
00:48:41,270 --> 00:48:40,000
china that remains the case today

1269
00:48:43,510 --> 00:48:41,280
the prize

1270
00:48:45,270 --> 00:48:43,520
as well the same year of the fall of the

1271
00:48:47,109 --> 00:48:45,280
gang of four

1272
00:48:48,710 --> 00:48:47,119
led to an invitation for barry to visit

1273
00:48:51,190 --> 00:48:48,720
china probably wouldn't have happened

1274
00:48:53,270 --> 00:48:51,200
before either of those two events

1275
00:48:54,870 --> 00:48:53,280
at this time western visitors were still

1276
00:48:58,950 --> 00:48:54,880
rare and foreign technologies were

1277
00:49:03,670 --> 00:49:00,069
he

1278
00:49:05,510 --> 00:49:03,680
basically was led on a tour of china

1279
00:49:07,990 --> 00:49:05,520
went to many of the major cities spoke

1280
00:49:09,349 --> 00:49:08,000
to audiences in the thousands and

1281
00:49:11,190 --> 00:49:09,359
basically

1282
00:49:13,829 --> 00:49:11,200
told them about the development of the

1283
00:49:16,069 --> 00:49:13,839
vaccine what they could do to address

1284
00:49:18,069 --> 00:49:16,079
this tremendously serious problem in

1285
00:49:20,390 --> 00:49:18,079
their country he helped them acquire the

1286
00:49:23,510 --> 00:49:20,400
rights to manufacture the vaccine and to

1287
00:49:26,549 --> 00:49:23,520
begin a nationwide vaccination program

1288
00:49:28,790 --> 00:49:26,559
in 1978 he did a similar visit to taiwan

1289
00:49:31,270 --> 00:49:28,800
which had a similar impact and he later

1290
00:49:33,349 --> 00:49:31,280
referred to the 1977 trip as the most

1291
00:49:35,910 --> 00:49:33,359
important field trip of my life a life

1292
00:49:37,990 --> 00:49:35,920
that has included many field trips he

1293
00:49:39,910 --> 00:49:38,000
has since been very widely honored for

1294
00:49:43,670 --> 00:49:39,920
his contributions to health care in

1295
00:49:46,710 --> 00:49:43,680
china and to asia more generally

1296
00:49:47,670 --> 00:49:46,720
here uh he and jean are

1297
00:49:52,870 --> 00:49:47,680
uh

1298
00:49:55,990 --> 00:49:52,880
this is a tree planting ceremony part of

1299
00:49:58,790 --> 00:49:56,000
a very long trip uh on which he was

1300
00:50:02,190 --> 00:49:58,800
lavished with praise for the positive

1301
00:50:05,430 --> 00:50:02,200
impact he had in china and here he is in

1302
00:50:08,870 --> 00:50:05,440
2009 right here in san francisco at the

1303
00:50:10,870 --> 00:50:08,880
chinese hospital at a uh an event he was

1304
00:50:12,150 --> 00:50:10,880
being awarded the third annual hepbe

1305
00:50:18,710 --> 00:50:12,160
super

1306
00:50:23,190 --> 00:50:18,720
award and the award included a cape with

1307
00:50:27,190 --> 00:50:25,349
by the san francisco hippie free

1308
00:50:29,030 --> 00:50:27,200
organization and the chinese hospital of

1309
00:50:29,829 --> 00:50:29,040
san francisco

1310
00:50:31,430 --> 00:50:29,839
uh

1311
00:50:33,430 --> 00:50:31,440
very quickly because i can see that i'm

1312
00:50:35,670 --> 00:50:33,440
running out of time

1313
00:50:37,270 --> 00:50:35,680
somewhat later in his career he went

1314
00:50:39,670 --> 00:50:37,280
back to

1315
00:50:41,750 --> 00:50:39,680
oxford to ballyall college the college

1316
00:50:43,750 --> 00:50:41,760
where he had gotten his phd he had been

1317
00:50:46,630 --> 00:50:43,760
there earlier he served as eastman

1318
00:50:49,030 --> 00:50:46,640
professor in 1983. ballial is one of

1319
00:50:50,950 --> 00:50:49,040
oxford oldest colleges it's known

1320
00:50:53,190 --> 00:50:50,960
particularly for political science and

1321
00:50:56,150 --> 00:50:53,200
philosophy it's not terribly well known

1322
00:50:58,870 --> 00:50:56,160
for science uh he was the first american

1323
00:51:00,950 --> 00:50:58,880
to be elected master also the first

1324
00:51:03,829 --> 00:51:00,960
scientist if you don't count a 14th

1325
00:51:07,190 --> 00:51:03,839
century alchemist

1326
00:51:09,030 --> 00:51:07,200
and he served for five years he said

1327
00:51:10,630 --> 00:51:09,040
that the master of the college had no

1328
00:51:13,190 --> 00:51:10,640
power but a great deal of influence and

1329
00:51:15,109 --> 00:51:13,200
then an interesting observation learning

1330
00:51:17,349 --> 00:51:15,119
how to lead without actual power came in

1331
00:51:19,910 --> 00:51:17,359
good use in later years when for example

1332
00:51:22,069 --> 00:51:19,920
at the nasa astrobiology institute i had

1333
00:51:24,630 --> 00:51:22,079
considerable administrative power but

1334
00:51:27,270 --> 00:51:24,640
only rarely had need to use it this is

1335
00:51:29,109 --> 00:51:27,280
barry and his bally all robes taken just

1336
00:51:31,190 --> 00:51:29,119
in february of this year just a couple

1337
00:51:33,430 --> 00:51:31,200
of months before he passed away

1338
00:51:35,349 --> 00:51:33,440
along with some friends that you can see

1339
00:51:37,270 --> 00:51:35,359
above him this was taken in ben franklin

1340
00:51:39,030 --> 00:51:37,280
hall in philadelphia

1341
00:51:40,870 --> 00:51:39,040
ben franklin hall is the home of the

1342
00:51:44,230 --> 00:51:40,880
american philosophical society which

1343
00:51:45,990 --> 00:51:44,240
barry was president of from 2005 i

1344
00:51:50,950 --> 00:51:46,000
believe

1345
00:51:55,630 --> 00:51:53,750
so we come to barry in astrobiology

1346
00:51:57,510 --> 00:51:55,640
i put in a couple of slides about

1347
00:51:59,190 --> 00:51:57,520
astrobiology just in case there was

1348
00:52:01,349 --> 00:51:59,200
anybody in the audience who didn't know

1349
00:52:03,589 --> 00:52:01,359
what it was

1350
00:52:05,190 --> 00:52:03,599
i don't think there are many such people

1351
00:52:06,230 --> 00:52:05,200
in this audience

1352
00:52:08,950 --> 00:52:06,240
so

1353
00:52:10,630 --> 00:52:08,960
you know astrobiology biology's three

1354
00:52:13,109 --> 00:52:10,640
questions

1355
00:52:15,030 --> 00:52:13,119
it involves four areas of science the

1356
00:52:18,069 --> 00:52:15,040
understanding of the nature of life on

1357
00:52:20,870 --> 00:52:18,079
earth it's diversity it's ubiquity we

1358
00:52:22,870 --> 00:52:20,880
find it basically everywhere we can

1359
00:52:24,950 --> 00:52:22,880
um

1360
00:52:26,950 --> 00:52:24,960
computers awfully touchy

1361
00:52:28,069 --> 00:52:26,960
and it's antiquity we find it in

1362
00:52:30,470 --> 00:52:28,079
evidence of it in three and a half

1363
00:52:33,190 --> 00:52:30,480
billion year old stromatolites

1364
00:52:35,670 --> 00:52:33,200
the other another area is the

1365
00:52:38,390 --> 00:52:35,680
environments that we are discovering on

1366
00:52:40,390 --> 00:52:38,400
other planets in this planetary system

1367
00:52:42,790 --> 00:52:40,400
in our solar system and on planets

1368
00:52:44,309 --> 00:52:42,800
around other stars and the prevalence of

1369
00:52:47,030 --> 00:52:44,319
the raw ingredients for life in

1370
00:52:48,549 --> 00:52:47,040
interstellar space and in meteorites

1371
00:52:51,270 --> 00:52:48,559
being delivered to these habitable

1372
00:52:54,470 --> 00:52:51,280
planets so these are four

1373
00:52:56,470 --> 00:52:54,480
very diverse areas it requires uh the

1374
00:52:58,390 --> 00:52:56,480
expertise of people in the biological

1375
00:53:00,790 --> 00:52:58,400
sciences the geological sciences and the

1376
00:53:02,870 --> 00:53:00,800
astronomical sciences a highly highly

1377
00:53:04,950 --> 00:53:02,880
interdisciplinary field and you can see

1378
00:53:07,670 --> 00:53:04,960
from barry's background why such a

1379
00:53:09,750 --> 00:53:07,680
highly interdisciplinary field with such

1380
00:53:12,069 --> 00:53:09,760
amazing questions

1381
00:53:15,589 --> 00:53:12,079
would be attractive

1382
00:53:17,430 --> 00:53:15,599
so nasa comes a colon in 1997 barry was

1383
00:53:19,270 --> 00:53:17,440
invited to join stanford's program on

1384
00:53:22,790 --> 00:53:19,280
human biology where he taught medical

1385
00:53:24,470 --> 00:53:22,800
anthropology and the scientific process

1386
00:53:25,589 --> 00:53:24,480
turns out that somebody in the audience

1387
00:53:28,309 --> 00:53:25,599
mal cohn

1388
00:53:31,510 --> 00:53:28,319
uh was teaching at stanford at the time

1389
00:53:34,790 --> 00:53:31,520
new barry from philadelphia and malin

1390
00:53:36,870 --> 00:53:34,800
basically introduced barry to nasa and

1391
00:53:38,309 --> 00:53:36,880
introduced nasa to barry

1392
00:53:40,549 --> 00:53:38,319
so barry was invited to attend the

1393
00:53:42,630 --> 00:53:40,559
astrobiology roadmap workshop at ames in

1394
00:53:45,589 --> 00:53:42,640
july 1998

1395
00:53:48,470 --> 00:53:45,599
and astrobiology intrigued him what a

1396
00:53:49,349 --> 00:53:48,480
surprise

1397
00:53:51,190 --> 00:53:49,359
and

1398
00:53:53,190 --> 00:53:51,200
he noted that nasa was applying

1399
00:53:54,549 --> 00:53:53,200
scientific principles and process to

1400
00:53:57,510 --> 00:53:54,559
questions that had been of interest to

1401
00:53:59,349 --> 00:53:57,520
philosophers the religious ethicists etc

1402
00:54:01,750 --> 00:53:59,359
for countless generations

1403
00:54:06,870 --> 00:54:01,760
later in 1998 he co-chaired another ames

1404
00:54:11,109 --> 00:54:08,630
on the international space station and

1405
00:54:13,430 --> 00:54:11,119
in 1999 at dan golden's invitation he

1406
00:54:15,430 --> 00:54:13,440
became the founding director of the nasa

1407
00:54:17,190 --> 00:54:15,440
astrobiology institute

1408
00:54:18,790 --> 00:54:17,200
there he is with dan

1409
00:54:22,230 --> 00:54:18,800
and barry of course served for three

1410
00:54:26,790 --> 00:54:24,710
this is also from barry i understood

1411
00:54:28,549 --> 00:54:26,800
that my mandate was to establish a basic

1412
00:54:31,109 --> 00:54:28,559
science organization that could discover

1413
00:54:32,630 --> 00:54:31,119
and understand natural phenomena that

1414
00:54:33,910 --> 00:54:32,640
related to early life into life

1415
00:54:36,230 --> 00:54:33,920
elsewhere

1416
00:54:38,150 --> 00:54:36,240
at an introductory address to members of

1417
00:54:39,750 --> 00:54:38,160
the institute's executive council i told

1418
00:54:41,190 --> 00:54:39,760
them that i did not expect them to do

1419
00:54:43,030 --> 00:54:41,200
exactly what they said they would do in

1420
00:54:44,950 --> 00:54:43,040
their applications since in a

1421
00:54:46,710 --> 00:54:44,960
fast-moving field observations made

1422
00:54:48,309 --> 00:54:46,720
after the application had been written

1423
00:54:53,829 --> 00:54:48,319
could greatly change the path of

1424
00:54:57,109 --> 00:54:54,870
again

1425
00:54:58,230 --> 00:54:57,119
you can see exactly where that

1426
00:55:00,790 --> 00:54:58,240
came from

1427
00:55:03,510 --> 00:55:00,800
look at his own career he started off

1428
00:55:05,750 --> 00:55:03,520
looking for genetic polymorphisms and

1429
00:55:07,750 --> 00:55:05,760
discovered the source of of one of the

1430
00:55:09,910 --> 00:55:07,760
most serious diseases

1431
00:55:10,950 --> 00:55:09,920
that inflicts mankind

1432
00:55:13,270 --> 00:55:10,960
not

1433
00:55:14,549 --> 00:55:13,280
what was expected

1434
00:55:16,870 --> 00:55:14,559
this is barry

1435
00:55:20,069 --> 00:55:16,880
with the nai executive council some

1436
00:55:22,950 --> 00:55:20,079
years later in 2009 when he was a

1437
00:55:24,710 --> 00:55:22,960
distinguished scientist with both the

1438
00:55:27,190 --> 00:55:24,720
astrobiology institute and the nasa

1439
00:55:29,030 --> 00:55:27,200
lunar science institute

1440
00:55:30,630 --> 00:55:29,040
and

1441
00:55:33,190 --> 00:55:30,640
we were having an executive council

1442
00:55:36,710 --> 00:55:33,200
meeting in yellowstone national park

1443
00:55:39,430 --> 00:55:36,720
uh barry continued his um

1444
00:55:40,710 --> 00:55:39,440
his uh focus on getting out into the

1445
00:55:43,670 --> 00:55:40,720
field this is

1446
00:55:45,750 --> 00:55:43,680
barry up in the high arctic on devon

1447
00:55:47,510 --> 00:55:45,760
island at the nasa hot and mars project

1448
00:55:50,150 --> 00:55:47,520
in 2000

1449
00:55:52,309 --> 00:55:50,160
this is barry at the iron mountain mine

1450
00:55:54,789 --> 00:55:52,319
near reading california in september

1451
00:55:56,390 --> 00:55:54,799
2002 barry was claustrophobic and he

1452
00:55:57,829 --> 00:55:56,400
went down into the mine

1453
00:56:00,309 --> 00:55:57,839
and he first had to overcome his

1454
00:56:03,430 --> 00:56:00,319
claustrophobia in order to

1455
00:56:04,950 --> 00:56:03,440
actually do it but he was determined to

1456
00:56:09,190 --> 00:56:04,960
see what things were all about in the

1457
00:56:12,710 --> 00:56:11,430
one of the things that developed after

1458
00:56:14,230 --> 00:56:12,720
barry

1459
00:56:15,829 --> 00:56:14,240
left the nai

1460
00:56:17,829 --> 00:56:15,839
was a partnership with the american

1461
00:56:19,990 --> 00:56:17,839
philosophical society after he became

1462
00:56:22,230 --> 00:56:20,000
the partner the american philosophical

1463
00:56:24,230 --> 00:56:22,240
society had a

1464
00:56:26,069 --> 00:56:24,240
fund called a program called the lewis

1465
00:56:29,670 --> 00:56:26,079
and clark program

1466
00:56:31,270 --> 00:56:29,680
for field research which supported young

1467
00:56:34,069 --> 00:56:31,280
investigators going all over the world

1468
00:56:36,789 --> 00:56:34,079
and we formed in partnership with barry

1469
00:56:39,829 --> 00:56:36,799
a specific

1470
00:56:42,630 --> 00:56:39,839
version of this program for astrobiology

1471
00:56:45,030 --> 00:56:42,640
which has sent astrobiology graduate

1472
00:56:48,069 --> 00:56:45,040
students and post-docs

1473
00:56:49,589 --> 00:56:48,079
early career researchers in general to

1474
00:56:51,190 --> 00:56:49,599
many many different places in the world

1475
00:56:52,470 --> 00:56:51,200
these are just a few and i'm not going

1476
00:56:56,710 --> 00:56:52,480
to

1477
00:56:59,510 --> 00:56:56,720
of the many things that emerged

1478
00:57:01,990 --> 00:56:59,520
from barry's tenure as director and the

1479
00:57:05,430 --> 00:57:02,000
things that followed afterward

1480
00:57:07,430 --> 00:57:05,440
barry was also very concerned with uh

1481
00:57:09,349 --> 00:57:07,440
the study of

1482
00:57:11,349 --> 00:57:09,359
human behavior human behavior was an

1483
00:57:13,109 --> 00:57:11,359
essential element of susceptibility to

1484
00:57:14,789 --> 00:57:13,119
disease it was that third component in

1485
00:57:16,309 --> 00:57:14,799
addition to the environment

1486
00:57:18,710 --> 00:57:16,319
and to

1487
00:57:20,309 --> 00:57:18,720
genetic predisposition

1488
00:57:22,870 --> 00:57:20,319
and

1489
00:57:26,390 --> 00:57:22,880
barry brought an anthropologist into the

1490
00:57:29,510 --> 00:57:26,400
nai lisa faithhorn here she is at

1491
00:57:31,750 --> 00:57:29,520
the nai general meeting in 2001 because

1492
00:57:34,789 --> 00:57:31,760
barry wanted a card-carrying

1493
00:57:37,109 --> 00:57:34,799
anthropologist to study these teams that

1494
00:57:38,230 --> 00:57:37,119
were now supposed to be competing for

1495
00:57:39,510 --> 00:57:38,240
membership

1496
00:57:41,910 --> 00:57:39,520
in this institute but then they were

1497
00:57:44,150 --> 00:57:41,920
supposed to become cooperative and

1498
00:57:46,470 --> 00:57:44,160
collaborative afterward and then five

1499
00:57:48,630 --> 00:57:46,480
years after that when their agreements

1500
00:57:50,309 --> 00:57:48,640
expired they became competitors again

1501
00:57:52,309 --> 00:57:50,319
and barry wanted to understand how that

1502
00:57:54,870 --> 00:57:52,319
was all going to work and he figured who

1503
00:57:57,430 --> 00:57:54,880
better to figure out observe how that's

1504
00:57:59,109 --> 00:57:57,440
going to work than an anthropologist so

1505
00:58:00,230 --> 00:57:59,119
we had an anthropologist and lisa

1506
00:58:01,190 --> 00:58:00,240
remains

1507
00:58:19,750 --> 00:58:01,200
a

1508
00:58:21,349 --> 00:58:19,760
directory uh

1509
00:58:25,030 --> 00:58:21,359
10 years ago

1510
00:58:26,950 --> 00:58:25,040
well before facebook was on the scene

1511
00:58:29,910 --> 00:58:26,960
he introduced the concept of focus

1512
00:58:30,630 --> 00:58:29,920
groups bringing communities together

1513
00:58:33,430 --> 00:58:30,640
in

1514
00:58:35,990 --> 00:58:33,440
focus groups and he established a virus

1515
00:58:38,870 --> 00:58:36,000
focus group to bring virology into

1516
00:58:40,870 --> 00:58:38,880
astrobiology where it had not been a

1517
00:58:41,750 --> 00:58:40,880
prominent part

1518
00:58:44,870 --> 00:58:41,760
he

1519
00:58:46,630 --> 00:58:44,880
clearly had a great importance a great

1520
00:58:49,270 --> 00:58:46,640
sense of the importance of international

1521
00:58:51,190 --> 00:58:49,280
collaboration so the international

1522
00:58:53,670 --> 00:58:51,200
partners program was also something that

1523
00:58:56,710 --> 00:58:53,680
barry gave a great deal of emphasis to

1524
00:58:59,190 --> 00:58:56,720
this is a picture taken at the signing

1525
00:59:01,430 --> 00:58:59,200
of the partnership agreement between the

1526
00:59:02,309 --> 00:59:01,440
nai and the astrobiology society of

1527
00:59:05,109 --> 00:59:02,319
britain

1528
00:59:08,270 --> 00:59:05,119
in london this was taken at the u.s

1529
00:59:12,230 --> 00:59:08,280
embassy in london in uh

1530
00:59:14,069 --> 00:59:12,240
2002 i believe or 2001.

1531
00:59:16,069 --> 00:59:14,079
here's barry barry with david wynn

1532
00:59:17,750 --> 00:59:16,079
williams a member of the british

1533
00:59:19,670 --> 00:59:17,760
antarctic survey who was tragically

1534
00:59:22,870 --> 00:59:19,680
killed in a bicycling accident a few

1535
00:59:25,270 --> 00:59:22,880
years after this picture was taken

1536
00:59:28,230 --> 00:59:25,280
barry also appreciated the contributions

1537
00:59:30,549 --> 00:59:28,240
that all people from all walks of life

1538
00:59:35,190 --> 00:59:30,559
have to make

1539
00:59:37,910 --> 00:59:35,200
to science uh he started the minority

1540
00:59:39,750 --> 00:59:37,920
institution research support program and

1541
00:59:42,150 --> 00:59:39,760
here is a picture taken at the

1542
00:59:44,789 --> 00:59:42,160
astrobiology science conference in 2006

1543
00:59:46,950 --> 00:59:44,799
there's barry with a few of us

1544
00:59:49,030 --> 00:59:46,960
uh and

1545
00:59:50,230 --> 00:59:49,040
with a number of

1546
00:59:56,069 --> 00:59:50,240
the

1547
00:59:57,349 --> 00:59:56,079
minority institution research support

1548
01:00:01,829 --> 00:59:57,359
program

1549
01:00:04,309 --> 01:00:01,839
barry was also a great fan of involving

1550
01:00:05,109 --> 01:00:04,319
ordinary citizens in science

1551
01:00:07,430 --> 01:00:05,119
he was

1552
01:00:08,870 --> 01:00:07,440
citizen science projects were a passion

1553
01:00:10,230 --> 01:00:08,880
of his in fact this is what he was

1554
01:00:13,030 --> 01:00:10,240
speaking about

1555
01:00:16,470 --> 01:00:13,040
at the meeting which he passed away here

1556
01:00:19,990 --> 01:00:18,470
as barry said people keep saying that

1557
01:00:22,309 --> 01:00:20,000
basic research is just a fishing

1558
01:00:23,910 --> 01:00:22,319
expedition i never understood why people

1559
01:00:26,950 --> 01:00:23,920
objected to that after all that's the

1560
01:00:31,750 --> 01:00:29,990
barry caught a lot of fish in his career

1561
01:00:33,510 --> 01:00:31,760
uh we now have the blumberg center for

1562
01:00:35,750 --> 01:00:33,520
science innovation which is the home of

1563
01:00:37,750 --> 01:00:35,760
the nasa lunar science institute

1564
01:00:39,510 --> 01:00:37,760
uh just at the head of the parade

1565
01:00:41,670 --> 01:00:39,520
grounds

1566
01:00:43,750 --> 01:00:41,680
barry with his wife

1567
01:00:45,990 --> 01:00:43,760
jean

1568
01:00:48,549 --> 01:00:46,000
barry passed away within a day of his

1569
01:00:52,390 --> 01:00:48,559
57th anniversary

1570
01:00:53,510 --> 01:00:52,400
which was very poignant for everyone

1571
01:00:57,910 --> 01:00:53,520
barry

1572
01:00:59,990 --> 01:00:57,920
was just such a genuinely

1573
01:01:02,069 --> 01:01:00,000
warm human being

1574
01:01:04,470 --> 01:01:02,079
genuine is the right word to describe

1575
01:01:06,309 --> 01:01:04,480
barry there wasn't a false bone in his

1576
01:01:08,390 --> 01:01:06,319
body

1577
01:01:09,510 --> 01:01:08,400
he was warm he was humble he was

1578
01:01:13,190 --> 01:01:09,520
generous

1579
01:01:17,510 --> 01:01:15,430
most a lot of people in this room knew

1580
01:01:21,430 --> 01:01:17,520
him and

1581
01:01:26,950 --> 01:01:23,510
those who know his family

1582
01:01:29,750 --> 01:01:26,960
know that his family his kids their kids

1583
01:01:30,710 --> 01:01:29,760
are really really nice people

1584
01:01:32,870 --> 01:01:30,720
and

1585
01:01:36,470 --> 01:01:32,880
in this case this is just one really

1586
01:01:40,549 --> 01:01:37,510
so

1587
01:01:42,549 --> 01:01:40,559
we all have wonderful wonderful memories

1588
01:01:53,510 --> 01:01:42,559
of barry

1589
01:02:09,990 --> 01:01:55,109
if you have a question you have to raise

1590
01:02:14,630 --> 01:02:12,789
carl you met uh quoted extensively from

1591
01:02:16,390 --> 01:02:14,640
a book that barry wrote which i was

1592
01:02:19,109 --> 01:02:16,400
unaware of could you give us the title

1593
01:02:20,549 --> 01:02:19,119
and where one could get a copy

1594
01:02:22,870 --> 01:02:20,559
i sure can

1595
01:02:24,230 --> 01:02:22,880
it is published by princeton university

1596
01:02:27,829 --> 01:02:24,240
press

1597
01:02:30,230 --> 01:02:27,839
i presume you know i didn't check to

1598
01:02:31,910 --> 01:02:30,240
verify that it's still in print i bought

1599
01:02:33,510 --> 01:02:31,920
it in the princeton university bookstore

1600
01:02:34,870 --> 01:02:33,520
some years ago

1601
01:02:37,349 --> 01:02:34,880
but there it is it's the hunt for a

1602
01:02:39,750 --> 01:02:37,359
killer virus hepatitis b by baruch s

1603
01:02:41,990 --> 01:02:39,760
bloomberg princeton university press

1604
01:02:49,990 --> 01:02:42,000
2002.

1605
01:02:54,309 --> 01:02:52,549
let's get a microphone to you

1606
01:02:55,990 --> 01:02:54,319
he said to me it's typical barry that

1607
01:02:57,190 --> 01:02:56,000
more members of my family have climbed

1608
01:03:01,510 --> 01:02:57,200
mount katahdin than read my

1609
01:03:05,670 --> 01:03:03,309
i tell you i really wish i had read his

1610
01:03:07,750 --> 01:03:05,680
autobiography as carefully before he

1611
01:03:09,829 --> 01:03:07,760
passed away as i have since because i

1612
01:03:19,190 --> 01:03:09,839
now have so many questions i want to ask

1613
01:03:24,230 --> 01:03:20,630
thank you carl you mentioned that

1614
01:03:26,390 --> 01:03:24,240
there's a an archive of video i assume

1615
01:03:28,390 --> 01:03:26,400
interviews with barry yes

1616
01:03:31,430 --> 01:03:28,400
where is that google

1617
01:03:34,069 --> 01:03:31,440
web of stories

1618
01:03:36,230 --> 01:03:34,079
and then when you get to their home page

1619
01:03:38,630 --> 01:03:36,240
just search in their search engine on

1620
01:03:40,710 --> 01:03:38,640
bloomberg and you'll come to it it's six

1621
01:03:42,710 --> 01:03:40,720
or seven hours broken up into eighty

1622
01:03:44,390 --> 01:03:42,720
individual segments each a few minutes

1623
01:03:46,710 --> 01:03:44,400
long and basically it's an

1624
01:03:48,950 --> 01:03:46,720
extemporaneous version of his book he

1625
01:03:51,750 --> 01:03:48,960
takes you from his early childhood right

1626
01:03:54,150 --> 01:03:51,760
through his career at nai talks about

1627
01:03:56,870 --> 01:03:54,160
all the things that i've talked about

1628
01:03:57,670 --> 01:03:56,880
google web of stories web of stories

1629
01:03:59,589 --> 01:03:57,680
just

1630
01:04:02,789 --> 01:03:59,599
great type web of stories into the

1631
01:04:04,390 --> 01:04:02,799
search engine and you'll and and then

1632
01:04:05,829 --> 01:04:04,400
search on bloomberg

1633
01:04:07,910 --> 01:04:05,839
in their

1634
01:04:11,349 --> 01:04:07,920
search window and you'll be there in 30

1635
01:04:11,359 --> 01:04:16,630
any further questions

1636
01:04:19,910 --> 01:04:18,150
all right

1637
01:04:22,390 --> 01:04:19,920
carl thank you so much for doing this

1638
01:04:23,349 --> 01:04:22,400
it's just amazing to hear this back

1639
01:04:24,789 --> 01:04:23,359
story

1640
01:04:26,710 --> 01:04:24,799
and i think

1641
01:04:29,029 --> 01:04:26,720
more of us aren't able to speak right

1642
01:04:30,710 --> 01:04:29,039
now because we're so choked up with our

1643
01:04:32,870 --> 01:04:30,720
own memories of barry

1644
01:04:34,309 --> 01:04:32,880
but i'm going to try to push past that

1645
01:04:36,870 --> 01:04:34,319
because i want to say something that i

1646
01:04:38,630 --> 01:04:36,880
think is really important to this crowd

1647
01:04:40,870 --> 01:04:38,640
and in fact for everybody in this crowd

1648
01:04:43,349 --> 01:04:40,880
to take back to everyone you know

1649
01:04:45,349 --> 01:04:43,359
and that is that because of barry's

1650
01:04:47,990 --> 01:04:45,359
passing

1651
01:04:51,510 --> 01:04:48,000
several of us wanted to learn more about

1652
01:04:54,390 --> 01:04:51,520
what to do when a loved one has

1653
01:04:56,470 --> 01:04:54,400
a heart attack and so we purchased at

1654
01:04:59,190 --> 01:04:56,480
the lunar science institute

1655
01:05:00,069 --> 01:04:59,200
one of those aed devices

1656
01:05:01,990 --> 01:05:00,079
and

1657
01:05:04,950 --> 01:05:02,000
in order to learn how to use that we all

1658
01:05:06,870 --> 01:05:04,960
took a cpr course just last friday

1659
01:05:08,870 --> 01:05:06,880
and what we were surprised to learn is

1660
01:05:11,829 --> 01:05:08,880
that there have been some changes that

1661
01:05:14,150 --> 01:05:11,839
the red cross now advises in the way you

1662
01:05:16,069 --> 01:05:14,160
give cpr and when you give it and

1663
01:05:18,150 --> 01:05:16,079
without going into what those details

1664
01:05:21,029 --> 01:05:18,160
are i would just like to urge every

1665
01:05:23,029 --> 01:05:21,039
single person here to get retrained

1666
01:05:25,349 --> 01:05:23,039
right now even if you think you know

1667
01:05:27,589 --> 01:05:25,359
what to do i can promise you some things

1668
01:05:30,069 --> 01:05:27,599
have changed just in the last year

1669
01:05:33,589 --> 01:05:30,079
and for those of us that were so close

1670
01:05:36,789 --> 01:05:33,599
to him we all wonder and wish we knew

1671
01:05:40,069 --> 01:05:36,799
what we know now when he had passed

1672
01:05:42,230 --> 01:05:40,079
so i really just can't emphasize enough

1673
01:05:51,270 --> 01:05:42,240
that you know you need to get cpr

1674
01:05:56,390 --> 01:05:54,069
okay well this is a great uh colloquium

1675
01:06:03,109 --> 01:05:56,400
carl i think we should give our speaker

1676
01:06:07,430 --> 01:06:03,750
you

1677
01:06:09,349 --> 01:06:07,440
barry's story and i think we have some